14981498

Felsgrottenmadonna, Leonardo da Vinci, 1483-1486 — 1483

Dame mit dem Hermelin, Leonardo da Vinci, 1489-1491 — 1491

La Belle Ferronnière von Leonardo da Vinci — 1497

Das letzte Abendmahl, Leonardo da Vinci, 1494-1498

1501

Johannes der Täufer, Leonardo da Vinci, 1513-1519 — 1513

Ratio of the areas of the seven paintings:

Leonardo da Vinci – All 22 Paintings

How many paintings did Leonardo da Vinci paint?

Leonardo da Vinci probably completed fewer than ten paintings. Around 1900, about 100 paintings were still attributed to him; today, it’s only about 20. And even for many of the remaining paintings, the authenticity is highly disputed. Based on historical sources and stylistic analysis, only five or seven completed paintings can be securely attributed to Leonardo: The Virgin of the Rocks, The Last Supper, The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, Mona Lisa and Saint John the Baptist. Although there are occasional doubts about their authenticity, Lady with an Ermine and La Belle Ferronière are largely accepted as works by Leonardo.

Why did Leonardo paint so few paintings?

Leonardo da Vinci was not a full-time painter. He was rather a universal scholar and engineer who also became known for his artworks. As a result, Leonardo was always occupied with other commissions and had little time left for painting. But when he did take the time to design a painting, the work was meant to be especially beautiful and unique. He was known for working on a single painting for several years.

What was Leonardo da Vinci’s favorite color?

Leonardo da Vinci did not have a specific favorite color, as he mainly appreciated the variety of colors. He produced his paints himself from natural pigments.

Leonardo often used a special blue that he made from lapis lazuli. Lapis lazuli is a rock with a deep blue color, mainly imported from Afghanistan. Mining and transporting it to Italy were extremely expensive. Therefore, only wealthy patrons could afford paintings with this color. An example of the use of lapis lazuli is the blue cloak of Mary in the painting “The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne.”

Leonardo also frequently used a special red, carmine red (also called “crimson”). Carmine red is a pigment with a rich red color obtained from the cochineal insect and was mainly used to dye precious fabrics (Leonardo’s hometown Florence owed its prosperity above all to the textile trade). To produce a sufficient amount for a painting, the insects had to be laboriously collected from branches and twigs by hand and processed. Therefore, carmine red was very expensive and, like lapis lazuli, was only rarely used for paintings. An example of the use of carmine red is the red dress of “La Belle Ferronière.”

All 22 Attributions – An Overview

Today, about 20 works are attributed to Leonardo da Vinci. For the majority of the paintings, Leonardo’s authorship is disputed. Leonardo was 20 years old when he passed his master’s examination and was admitted to the painters’ guild of Florence. Nevertheless, he continued working for nearly another ten years for his teacher Verrocchio. A large portion of the contested works comes from this period.

The generally sparse and imprecise historical sources on Leonardo’s works have always left much room for interpretation and attribution. Yet in some of these paintings, one can recognize a certain style that differs greatly from the others — a graceful perfection in composition that seems to belong only to Leonardo. Therefore, it can be assumed that the circle of more than 100 paintings still attributed to Leonardo around 1900 will continue to shrink in the future.

This overview lists all the paintings for which Leonardo is considered the author according to current research.

Saint Jerome, c. 1478–1482

The emphasis on the facial and shoulder musculature is reminiscent of Leonardo’s anatomical studies

Adoration of the Magi, c. 1481

With this work, Leonardo imitated a famous painting by his former fellow student Sandro Botticelli

Virgin of the Rocks, 1483-1486

A second, slightly altered version of the painting exists, which was produced by Leonardo’s workshop due to a legal dispute

Lady with an Ermine, c. 1490

A mistress of Leonardo’s long-time patron, the Duke of Milan. She became the mother of one of the Duke’s children

La Belle Ferronière, c. 1497

Another mistress of the Duke of Milan. She too had a child by him

The Last Supper, c. 1495-1498

The only mural by Leonardo besides the unfinished “Battle of Anghiari” is also, at over nine meters wide, by far his largest work.

The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, c. 1502

A second, slightly altered version of the painting exists. This is an earlier preliminary study, the so-called Burlington House Cartoon

Mona Lisa, from 1503

The most famous painting in the world originally depicted a noblewoman from Florence

Tavola Doria (Study for the Battle of Anghiari), c. 1503-1505

Work on the enormous mural was abandoned because of dampness in the wall. It was then probably walled over and is known today only through this presumably autograph preliminary study

Saint John the Baptist, from 1513

The last painting by Leonardo da Vinci

Tobias and the Angel, c. 1470–1475

Leonardo is said to have painted the dog, the fish, and Tobias’s curls

Baptism of Christ, c. 1475

Leonardo probably painted only parts of the left angel and the landscape

The Annunciation, 1472-1475

Leonardo probably painted only parts of the angel and the landscape

Madonna of the Carnation, c. 1473–1478

The attribution to Leonardo is based solely on a vague mention by his famous biographer Giorgio Vasari

Benois Madonna, c. 1475–1478

The strikingly religious symbolism is very untypical for a work by Leonardo

Litta Madonna, 1490–1495

Today hardly recognized as authentic, but listed here for the sake of completeness

Portrait of a Young Man (Portrait of a Musician), 1485–1490

For a Leonardo work, the lack of compositional sophistication is astonishing

Madonna of the Yarnwinder, 1501

The painting from Leonardo’s workshop was copied by numerous students

Salvator Mundi, c. 1500

The most expensive painting ever auctioned (450 million dollars)

Leda and the Swan,

To this day it has not been proven that Leonardo ever painted such a work. Here is a fictitious reproduction by an unknown artist

Bacchus, 1510–1515

The painting was extensively restored between 2017 and 2019 and is now considered a work from Leonardo’s workshop

Ginevra de' Benci, 1474-1478

The magnificent portrait is strikingly brilliant for the 22-year-old Leonardo

Why is the authenticity of Leonardo’s paintings so disputed?

Leonardo da Vinci never signed his paintings; this was not yet customary during the Renaissance.
There are only very few reliable documents or contemporary reports about Leonardo’s paintings. And when they do exist, they are very vague in their descriptions. For example, there are three contemporary descriptions of The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, but none can be clearly assigned to the two versions of the work.
To this day there is no reliable scientific method to date paintings precisely before the 18th century. At best, physical methods can narrow the period of creation down to ±50 years (radiocarbon dating).
No preparatory drawings or studies by Leonardo have survived that could prove the work on, for example, Lady with an Ermine, La Belle Ferronière, or the Mona Lisa. Leonardo wrote a great deal in his notebooks, but there are very few references to his paintings. Among the few are descriptive sketch notes about The Last Supper or the Battle of Anghiari.
Leonardo is still regarded as the greatest painter of all time. Therefore, many great artists measured themselves against him and copied his style. In such a case it is stylistically very difficult, almost impossible, for art historians to determine the author precisely. Famous painters who eagerly imitated Leonardo include, for example, Raphael, Peter Paul Rubens, and Salvador Dalí.

The unquestionably authentic paintings
In chronological order

Virgin of the Rocks

1483–1486
Oil on wood, 122 × 199 cm, aspect ratio: Golden Ratio
Paris, Musée du Louvre

Leonardo’s first completed painting was planned as the central panel for an altarpiece that he was to decorate together with two other painters. The commissioning monks were disturbed by the ambiguous expressions and gestures, which they regarded as heretical. A dispute arose over payment for the work. The painting was not delivered. A decades-long legal battle began, resulting in a second version. It was probably no longer produced by Leonardo himself but by his workshop.

Painting Analysis – Virgin of the Rocks

Lady with an Ermine

c. 1490
Oil on wood, 39 × 53 cm, aspect ratio: 3:4
Krakow, Czartoryski Museum

Leonardo’s first female portrait depicts a mistress of the Duke of Milan, Leonardo’s long-time patron. The ermine is a reference to the sitter’s surname and to the Duke himself, who was a member of an Order of the Ermine.

Painting Analysis – Lady with an Ermine

La Belle Ferronière

c. 1490
Oil on wood, 45 × 63 cm, aspect ratio: 1:√2
Paris, Musée du Louvre

The identity of the beauty with the many ribbons on her dress is not definitively established. It is probably another mistress of the Duke of Milan. A distinctive feature of the painting is the separating wall in the foreground. The headdress she is wearing is called a ferroniere.

Painting Analysis – La Belle Ferronière

The Last Supper

c. 1495–1498
Oil and tempera on plaster, 904 × 422 cm, aspect ratio: 2:1
Milan, Santa Maria delle Grazie, Refectory

By far Leonardo da Vinci’s largest work, it is the only one of his completed works that depicts architecture. The mural was the last commission from the Duke of Milan shortly before his downfall and is considered Leonardo’s central masterpiece, though it is now severely threatened by deterioration. Leonardo experimented with the pigments. The painting shows the scene in which Jesus at the Last Supper tells his disciples that one of them will betray him. They are shocked and want to know who the traitor is.

Painting Analysis – The Last Supper

The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne

c. 1502–1516
Oil on wood, 130 × 168 cm, aspect ratio: 2:3
Paris, Musée du Louvre

For a long time it was assumed that the work was created at the request of the French royal family. Today it is believed that Leonardo painted the work on his own initiative. Depicted is the young Jesus playing with a lamb. His mother Mary sits on the lap of her mother Anne. There is a second, earlier version that was created as a study for this painting (Burlington House Cartoon). The psychologist Sigmund Freud referred to this painting in his famous psychoanalysis of Leonardo da Vinci.

Painting Analysis – The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne

Mona Lisa

1503–1506
Oil on wood, 53 × 77 cm, aspect ratio: 2:3
Paris, Musée du Louvre

The Mona Lisa is the most famous painting in the world. Originally it depicted a lady from Florence, but over the years Leonardo transformed it through countless overpaintings into a mystical work. The dark-toned painting creates an almost eerie atmosphere through the eroded landscape in the background and the restless fingers of her right hand, which is wonderfully contrasted by her famous gentle smile.

Painting Analysis – Mona Lisa

Saint John the Baptist

c. 1513–1516
Oil on wood, 56 × 73 cm, aspect ratio: 4:5
Paris, Musée du Louvre

The biblical figure John the Baptist was the patron saint of Florence, Leonardo’s hometown. This probably last painting by Leonardo was created during his stay in Rome in the service of the Pope, six years before his death. It demonstrates Leonardo’s ability to achieve astonishing complexity with minimal means. He dispenses with the depiction of landscape, architecture, additional figures or sumptuous garments and works solely with the soft summer fur of an ermine, a human body, a cross and light. The painting is thus a wonderfully artfully visualized epigram and certainly a final greeting from Leonardo, the greatest of all painters.

Painting Analysis – Saint John the Baptist

What is special about Leonardo’s painting?

Leonardo’s paintings remain unmatched in their quality to this day. What is special about them is the unique fusion of representation with the immense knowledge of the universal genius and his perfect painting technique. Leonardo’s paintings are characterized by:

the knowledge displayed in them, e.g. of anatomy and astronomy
strictly geometric picture constructions, so elegantly veiled that the cause of the resulting harmony cannot be recognized at first glance
double images, optical illusions and picture puzzles
hidden symbolism referring to the backgrounds of the figures depicted or the scenes portrayed
a perfect painting technique that no longer shows brushstrokes, the colors flow into one another. Leonardo developed this technique, which is called “sfumato” (Italian for “smoky, blurred”)

Virgin of the Rocks (detail of the composition sketch), Leonardo da Vinci, 1483–1486
The right eyes are located on a perfect circle. Only for the Christ Child (below) it is the left eye

The eyes are not only positioned on a circle. They also form symbolic triangles. This one connects the eyes of the three lower figures and has interior angles of exactly 90°, 60° and 30°

Lady with an Ermine (edited image detail)
The eyes and the right ear of the ermine form an equilateral triangle (green dots). With this knowledge a double image emerges: the ermine now looks directly at the viewer. A horizontal shadow under the middle point forms a smiling mouth

La Belle Ferronière Bildanalyse - Astronomische Skizze — La Belle Ferronière (composition sketch), Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1497
The lines and points important for the picture’s composition are reminiscent of an astronomical sketch

Das letzte Abendmahl Bildanalyse – Perspektivlinien — The Last Supper (composition sketch), Leonardo da Vinci, 1495–1498
The painting was executed in central perspective. On the horizon the construction lines converge at the vanishing point. This lies behind the right temple of Jesus, the “Light of the World” (John 8:12).
That Jesus was placed in front of a door also refers to a Bible passage. There Jesus says: “I am the door. Whoever enters through me will be saved; they will come in and go out and find pasture.” (John 10:9)

Mona Lisa, Leonardo da Vinci, 1503–1519
Viewers often have the impression that the Mona Lisa is looking directly at them

Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa – Detail des Gesichts — On closer inspection it becomes clear that the Mona Lisa is actually looking to the side. An optical illusion

Saint John the Baptist (detail, rotated about 30° to the right, right side of the face covered), Leonardo da Vinci, c. 1513–1519
The left side of the face looks directly at the viewer

If, on the other hand, the left side of the face is covered, it becomes clear that the right side of the face is looking to the right. In this way, each side of the face appears, independently of the other, to belong to two different people

Schematic presentation of all unquestionably authentic and completed paintings by Leonardo in a virtual gallery at their original sizes, arranged chronologically from left to right.
A clear pattern emerges: one large painting was followed by two smaller portraits. The Last Supper is 9 m wide, the largest painting, and was created in the middle of Leonardo’s career. It is also the only completed mural by Leonardo and thus permanently bound to the place of its creation.

The clearly recognizable pattern of painting sizes suggests that Leonardo wove all of his unquestionably authentic and completed paintings together as a painting cycle. Accordingly, the seven paintings of the universal genius must be connected by a common theme. This thesis is supported by the fact that John the Baptist appears only in the first (Virgin of the Rocks) and the last painting (Saint John the Baptist): in the first as a child, in the last as an adult. Thirty years lie between the two paintings. John the Baptist is the patron saint of Florence, Leonardo’s hometown, and a symbol of light

The unfinished paintings
In chronological order

Adoration of the Magi

c. 1481
Oil on wood
247 × 246 cm, aspect ratio: 1:1
Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence

The painting shows the Madonna shortly after the birth of Jesus in Bethlehem. She is surrounded by worshippers, among them the Three Wise Men from the East who have come to adore Jesus. In the background on the right a battle rages, strikingly similar to the depiction of the “Battle of Anghiari” begun about 20 years later. The left half of the background is devoted to the perspective depiction of architecture, which Leonardo otherwise only shows in his main work, The Last Supper, about 15 years later.

A special feature of the painting is its reference to Sandro Botticelli’s Adoration of the Magi, painted a few years earlier. Botticelli was a fellow student of Leonardo in Verrocchio’s workshop but seven years older. In his version Botticelli depicted himself on the right edge. This led to speculation that Leonardo also depicted himself at the right edge of his work.

Like the work “Saint Jerome” begun at the same time, Leonardo also had to leave this painting unfinished in Florence when he set out for Milan to serve the Duke there.

Anbetung der Könige - Sandro Botticelli — Adoration of the Magi (detail), Sandro Botticelli, c. 1476
Botticelli was a fellow student of Leonardo under Verrocchio. It is assumed that he portrayed himself on the right edge

Adoration of the Magi (detail), Leonardo da Vinci
Because the subject matter is so similar, it is assumed that Leonardo also portrayed himself here. In his writings Leonardo expressed himself critically about Botticelli’s painterly quality at least twice

Saint Jerome

c. 1478–1482
Oil on wood (walnut), 103 × 137 cm, aspect ratio: 3:4
Vatican Pinacoteca, Rome

The work shows the saint surrounded by rocks with a lion, which according to legend he had tamed. He looks at the begun sketch of a church, resembling a church in Florence completed at that time (Santa Maria Novella).

Leonardo probably began his career as an independent painter in Florence with this altarpiece. It would then be Leonardo’s first autonomous painting. At that time he was about 26 years old. Initially he had great difficulty obtaining lucrative commissions and probably received the commission for the altarpiece through the mediation of his father, who worked as a notary for the clients. Because of his move to Milan (1482), Leonardo could no longer complete the work.

Since there are hardly any historical sources connecting the work with Leonardo, its authorship is mainly justified stylistically. For even in this early work it can be seen that Leonardo strove for a harmony of science and painting. The emphasis on the saint’s bones and musculature indicates that Leonardo already possessed extensive anatomical knowledge at a young age.

The painting was long unknown until it was rediscovered in Rome by an uncle of Napoleon. It had been cut into several pieces that were used for decorative purposes. This can still be clearly seen in the square-shaped dark discoloration around the head.

Leonardo da Vinci – Anatomische Zeichnung — Anatomical Study of Shoulder Movement, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci

Tavola Doria (Study for the Battle of Anghiari)

c. 1503–1505
Oil on poplar wood, 86 × 115 cm, aspect ratio: 4:3
Traveling exhibition

The wooden panel (Italian “Tavola”) was named after its former owners, the Doria family. With high probability it is an autograph study by Leonardo for the oversized mural “Battle of Anghiari.”

The painting was planned for the Hall of the Five Hundred in the Palazzo Vecchio, the city parliament of Florence. It was intended to commemorate a glorious victory that the Republic of Florence had won over the Duchy of Milan 60 years earlier.

The pictorial idea was not new to Leonardo. As early as about 1490 he had described in a longer text for his Book on Painting how a battle should be depicted. In addition, elements of the Battle of Anghiari can already be found in Leonardo’s Adoration of the Magi.

Adoration of the Magi (detail), Leonardo da Vinci
Already in the painting created 20 years earlier but left unfinished, a cavalry battle is depicted that bears a strong resemblance to the depiction of the Battle of Anghiari

Adoration of the Magi (detail), Leonardo da Vinci
Apart from the Battle of Anghiari, Leonardo depicted horses only in the Adoration of the Magi. Both paintings remained unfinished.
Leonardo admired horses as noble animals which, although they feed exclusively on plants, nevertheless attain immense muscular strength

The Duel of the Renaissance Giants

At the same time as Leonardo, Michelangelo began his painting of the Battle of Cascina on the opposite wall of the same hall. But both works progressed little because of dampness in the walls. Leonardo had tried to dry the walls, but with poor success. His notes testify to the difficulties of the project:

On Friday, June 6, 1505, stroke of thirteen, I began painting in the Palazzo. At the moment I put the brush to the wall, the weather turned bad and the court bell rang to call the people to the hearings. The cartoon tore, the water was spilled, and the vessel in which the water was brought broke. And immediately the weather turned bad, and it rained in torrents until evening, and it remained as dark as night.

Both painters were withdrawn from the unfinished works. Leonardo suddenly had to return to his then patron, the French governor in Milan, and Michelangelo followed the Pope’s call to Rome. It is unknown whether the two works ever went beyond preparatory studies, for only copies of preparatory cartoons exist for Michelangelo’s planned painting as well.

Michelangleo – Schlacht von Cascina (Kopie eines Schülers) — Battle of Cascina (after Michelangelo), Bastiano da Sangallo (Aristotile), c. 1542
Michelangelo’s work is likewise considered lost and survives only through later copies made by his students. It shows bathing soldiers surprised by an alarm. The motif of water and the hasty flight calls to mind the specific difficulties of the project with the damp walls. Michelangelo too had to leave the project abruptly

The planned dimensions of the enormous mural are unknown, but it would certainly have been at least as large as The Last Supper (9 × 4 m). About 30 years later the Palazzo Vecchio was extensively renovated and rebuilt. Among others, Leonardo’s famous biographer and architect Giorgio Vasari carried out the work. He painted several paintings in the Hall of the Five Hundred measuring about 13 m wide and 7 m high. Leonardo’s and Michelangelo’s works were probably intended to be of a similar size. By comparison, Leonardo’s by far largest painting is The Last Supper at about 9 m wide and 4.5 m high, also a mural.

The “Tavola Doria” was the model for Peter Paul Rubens for his version of the Battle of Anghiari (after Leonardo da Vinci).

Schlacht von Anghiari nach Leonardo da Vinci – Peter Paul Rubens — Battle of Anghiari (after Leonardo da Vinci), Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1603
This drawing is the best-known copy of the lost painting. The Tavola Doria is probably the source of all copies. Remarkable is the similarity of the lower left face to Leonardo’s presumed self-portrait in the Adoration of the Magi, which seems to be sneaking away from the battlefield in anticipation of a hopeless fight. It almost appears as if both Michelangelo and Leonardo had already processed the anticipated difficulties of the project in their compositional designs. It is no surprise that the Palazzo Vecchio was extensively renovated a few decades later

Adoration of the Magi (detail), Leonardo da Vinci
It is possible that Leonardo portrayed himself here

Schlacht von Anghiari — Battle of Anghiari (after Leonardo da Vinci), Peter Paul Rubens, c. 1603
Rubens could no longer have seen the original painting. By the time he was born it had already been walled over or was lost. Remarkably, in his copy he gives the lower left figure a face which, unlike in the Tavola Doria, resembles Leonardo’s presumed self-portrait in the Adoration of the Magi. He is probably alluding to the difficulties of the project from which Leonardo and Michelangelo withdrew or allowed themselves to be willingly withdrawn

Wretched is the student who does not surpass his master

Leonardo da Vinci

The disputed paintings
In presumed chronological order

Tobias and the Angel

Andrea del Verrocchio
c. 1470–1475
Tempera on wood, 84 × 66 cm
National Gallery, London

The painting was created by Leonardo’s teacher Andrea del Verrocchio and has only in recent times been linked with Leonardo da Vinci. According to some art historians, the fish is painted too well to be by Verrocchio. The cloud-like dog in the lower left area recalls the motif of water that occupied Leonardo throughout his life and is therefore also said to have been painted by him. Likewise, the curls of Tobias appear in a Leonardesque style. Nevertheless, there is disagreement among experts about the involvement of Leonardo, then Verrocchio’s student.

If Leonardo’s participation could be proven beyond dispute, it would be the first painting in which Leonardo is known to have taken part.

The Annunciation

1472–1475
Oil and tempera on poplar wood, 98 × 217 cm
Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi

The work is believed to be from the workshop of Andrea del Verrocchio, Leonardo’s teacher. Exactly what Leonardo’s contribution was is disputed. He is said to have painted parts of the angel and the background. The depiction of the angel in body posture, design of the wings and garment is reminiscent of Leonardo’s first independently completed work, the Virgin of the Rocks.

The angel’s wings resemble those of the angel in the Virgin of the Rocks. Likewise, the red and green of the garment recall that angel.
The green part of the garment is folded almost identically to the orange lining of the Madonna’s cloak in the Virgin of the Rocks.
The four hands have the same position as four hands in the Virgin of the Rocks, which can only partially be explained by the religious context. Thus both hands of the Madonna (here turning pages in the book and receiving the blessing) correspond to the hand position of the Madonna of the Rocks, only each rotated 90° downward.

Virgin of the Rocks, London version (detail), Leonardo da Vinci
The wings of this angel resemble those of the angel from The Annunciation.

Madonna of the Carnation

c. 1473–1478
Oil on poplar wood, 62 × 47.5 cm
Munich, Alte Pinakothek

The attribution to Leonardo is highly disputed. In addition to Leonardo, the painting is also attributed to Verrocchio, Verrocchio’s workshop, or Lorenzo di Credi.

Supporters of the attribution refer to a quote from Vasari in his Leonardo biography: “Afterwards Leonardo painted an outstanding Madonna picture that later came into the possession of Pope Clement VII. Among other things this picture contained a glass vase filled with water and flowers, a marvel of fidelity; the dew drops on the flower petals were so naturally rendered that they appeared more real than in reality.” This description is said to refer to the lower right vase in the painting.

In addition, the Madonna’s brooch links the painting to Leonardo. It is the same brooch worn by the Madonna in the Virgin of the Rocks. Furthermore, the painting of the background landscape is regarded by proponents of Leonardo’s authorship as typically Leonardesque and is connected with Leonardo’s painting The Virgin and Child with Saint Anne.

However, the overall impression of the painting argues against a work by Leonardo. The painterly quality in no way corresponds to that of the paintings Saint Jerome (c. 1487) and Adoration of the Magi (c. 1481) created only a few years later. There is no reason to assume Leonardo would have deliberately worked below his capabilities here.

Virgin of the Rocks (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, 1483–1486
The Madonna’s brooch is the same as that of the Madonna with the Carnation. Both paintings are believed to have been created only a few years apart, but they differ greatly in their aesthetics

The hidden geometric symbolism of this extraordinary painting points to a creation date long after Leonardo’s death. It is the only painting attributed to Leonardo that is also painted on the reverse side—and at the same time the only one located outside Europe, namely in Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States

Ginevra de' Benci

1474–1478
Oil on wood, 43 × 37 cm
Washington D.C. National Gallery of Art

When the Portrait of Ginevra de' Benci was acquired by the National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C. in the 1950s, it was the most expensive painting ever sold.

The painting is said to be Leonardo’s first independent work, painted at the age of 21–25 under the influence of Netherlandish oil painting. Leonardo knew this then-new technique from Verrocchio’s workshop. At that time the Italian art scene was well connected with that north of the Alps. Many northern Alpine merchants sold paintings to Italy, and northern Alpine painters also undertook study trips to Italy.

The narrative of the painting is impressively composed in every respect, yet the geometric symbolism used argues against Leonardo’s authorship. Rather, a well-founded image analysis makes a dating from the late 17th century compelling. Since both the painting itself and the few sources strongly suggest that it is an original work by Leonardo, it must therefore be a deliberate forgery. This would also be the simplest explanation for the striking stylistic difference from all other works attributed to Leonardo, for which art historians have so far had no conclusive explanation.

Ginevra de' Benci (reverse side of the painting), attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
Painting on the back of a painting is already very unusual for practical reasons. Both sides can only be viewed if the painting is placed in the middle of a room

Dama dal Mazzolino, Andrea del Verrocchio — Dama col Mazzolino, Andrea del Verrocchio, c. 1475. The similarity of the bust to the portrait of Ginevra de' Benci is striking (hairstyle, neck veil, top button on the blouse). Leonardo is said to have oriented himself on Verrocchio’s depiction

@photographed by Sailko, 2019, creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.de)

Baptism of Christ

Andrea del Verrocchio
c. 1475
Tempera and oil on wood, 177 × 151 cm
Florence, Galleria degli Uffizi

The painting is a work by Leonardo da Vinci’s master Andrea del Verrocchio. Leonardo is said to have contributed in parts. The left angel and portions of the background are believed to have been painted by him. Since the "Baptism of Christ" as a whole is by no means attributed to Leonardo, viewing it as a Leonardo work is less relevant and at most allows conclusions about the nature of his activities during his apprenticeship with Verrocchio.

In connection with the painting, an anecdote from Vasari’s biography of Leonardo is frequently cited: "This [Verrocchio] was working on a panel of the Baptism of Christ, and Leonardo painted an angel holding some garments. Despite his youth, he executed this figure so perfectly that his angel far surpassed Andrea’s figures. This was the reason the master refused to touch colors again, full of rage that a child understood more than he did."

Vasari’s story is only a legend, since the Baptism of Christ was not Verrocchio’s last painting. Vasari was known for not being too precise with the truth if it made for an interesting story.

Benois Madonna

c. 1475–1478
Oil on canvas, 49.5 × 31 cm
Saint Petersburg, Hermitage

The painting of the Madonna Benois is overall executed too poorly to be considered a genuine Leonardo painting. Above all, the lighting is erratic, although it was always particularly important to Leonardo. It is unclear from where the scene is illuminated. The light sources and shadows appear to be placed arbitrarily. The unclear play of light is particularly evident on her left hand behind the Christ child. The lighting does not correspond to any assumed light source.

In addition, the rendering of the proper baby is awkward, with the left foot appearing pathologically swollen. The asymmetrical face of the Madonna, which looks almost strained when looking at the child, completes the inconsistent overall impression.

Furthermore, it would be very untypical for Leonardo to draw halos. He always deliberately avoided the conventional iconography to give the paintings a timeless character.

The fact that in this context this painting is also linked to Leonardo through the well-known brooch from the Virgin of the Rocks (it is the same one again) seems intentional and at best suggests a homage by a less talented painter.

That the Madonna’s robe is almost identical to that of The Virgin and Child with St. Anne is just another detail. The Hermitage in Saint Petersburg therefore consistently refuses to have the painting examined with modern technology.

Virgin of the Rocks (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, 1483–1486
The Madonna’s brooch is the same as in the Madonna Benois. Both paintings are believed to have been created only a few years apart, but they differ greatly in their aesthetics

Leonardo da Vinci – Studie zur Anna Selbdritt — Drapery Study for Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
The similarity of the garment from the The Virgin and Child with St. Anne to that of the Madonna Benois is surprising. It is unlikely that Leonardo created two paintings depicting the same garment

Portrait of a Young Man (Portrait of a Musician)

1485–1490
Oil and tempera on wood, 45 × 32 cm
Milan, Pinacoteca Ambrosiana

Leonardo da Vinci was a music lover. He is said to have played the lyre (a harp-like musical instrument), designed his own instruments, and accompanied himself with improvised singing, which reportedly earned him great admiration at courtly festivities. His notes also contain measures of musical notation.

Yet Leonardo preferred painting as the highest of all arts. In his writings, he repeatedly emphasized that music, like poetry, disappears the moment it is created, and that a thousand words cannot describe what a good painting conveys in an instant.

Leonardo’s time was limited—so limited that he had to delay even the influential Duchess Isabella d’Este when she requested a portrait. Leonardo was not a full-time painter and did not need to make a living from creating smaller portraits. He could afford to say no.

The few portraits he verifiably created were always executed with great refinement in their geometric composition. This is completely lacking in the Portrait of the Musician. It is even suspected that the eponymous sheet of music was added later, which would make the design appear even less carefully conceived.

The portrait of a young, unknown musician therefore does not fit the image that art historians have of Leonardo.

Bildnis eines Musikers (Detail des Notenblatts) — Portrait of a Musician (detail)
It is clearly visible that the words above the musical notes are not written in the mirror writing typical of Leonardo

Zwei Takte mit Noten und Bilderrätsel, Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Arundel — Two Measures with Musical Notes and Picture Puzzle, Leonardo da Vinci, Codex Arundel

Madonna Litta

1490–1495
Tempera on canvas, 42 × 33 cm
Saint Petersburg, Hermitage

The painting is a good example of how lengthy the processes can be that lead to a shift in art historical consensus. Leonardo’s authorship has now been largely disproven through the research of Alessandro Ballarin, and the painting is currently attributed to Leonardo’s pupil Boltraffio.

In Frank Zöllner’s widely read popular science book "Leonardo da Vinci" (Taschen Verlag, 1999), it is still listed as a work by Leonardo. According to him, there is a study in the Louvre that at least suggests Leonardo’s involvement. However, Frank Zöllner is one of the few remaining art historians who still consider the painting to be by Leonardo.

The Hermitage in Saint Petersburg, the museum exhibiting the painting, also continues to attribute it to Leonardo da Vinci.

Study of a Woman’s Head, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
According to Frank Zöllner, this drawing is meant to demonstrate that Leonardo is the author of the painting. If the drawing truly comes from Leonardo, one of his pupils (e.g., Boltraffio) could have used it as a model for the painting

Salvator mundi

1500
Oil on wood, 66 × 46 cm
Private collection (Saudi Royal Family)

Salvator Mundi (Latin: "Savior of the World") depicts a blessing Jesus holding a glass orb in his left hand. This type of representation was very common in the 16th century. Numerous paintings exist with this motif, including exactly this one with the crossed waist straps.

The miraculous rediscovery

The existence of the painting is documented only since around 1900, when it appeared at a London auction. It remained in private hands and was unknown to the public. The heavily damaged painting was purchased in 2005 in New Orleans for about $1,000 by an art speculator specializing in the discovery of previously unknown works by old masters. He sent the work to Dianne Modestini for restoration.

The Modestinis

Dianne Modestini was the much younger wife of restorer and Leonardo expert Mario Modestini. At the time, the already 98-year-old Mario Modestini had once been responsible for a significant Leonardo attribution. When the National Gallery of Art in Washington acquired the Portrait of Ginevra de' Benci in 1967, it was his judgment that confirmed Leonardo’s authorship. After days of examining the painting, he stated he had “absolutely no doubt” about its authenticity—a statement that is highly contested today. Like the Salvator Mundi now, the Ginevra de’ Benci was at the time purchased for the highest price ever paid.

In 2005, Dianne showed the Salvator Mundi to her husband Mario Modestini, and he said the painting was certainly the work of a very great artist, but from the generation after Leonardo. A few months later, Mario Modestini passed away. His widow restored the painting under the impression of his death and had to repair numerous flaked areas, especially around the head. The damage was so extensive, and her restorations and overpainting so significant, that critics joked the current Salvator Mundi was not created by Leonardo at all, but rather a personal work by Dianne Modestini in Leonardo’s style.

Salvator Mundi – Fotografie um 1912 — Salvator Mundi, photograph from 1912
At that time, the painting had been overpainted in many areas; among other changes, a mustache was added to Jesus. The photograph vividly demonstrates how just a few overpaints can drastically alter the character of a painting, potentially even leading to a completely new attribution

Salvator Mundi – Fotografie vor der Restauration durch Dianne Modestini — Salvator Mundi, photograph circa 2005
During the restoration by Dianne Modestini, the painting was first cleaned, revealing the extent of its damage. At the bottom, a knot hole is visible, with a crack running upward. The numerous flaked areas make clear how extensively Dianne Modestini overpainted the work at her own discretion

Dianne Modestini stated that when she reached the lips, their contourless painting reminded her of the lips of the Mona Lisa: "My hands were trembling, only Leonardo could have painted this picture." She immediately informed the owner that she believed the work to be a painting by Leonardo.

The Most Expensive Painting in the World

The work was brought to the attention of auction houses in 2005 and changed owners for ever-increasing prices until 2017, when it was finally sold to the Arab region for the record price of approximately $500 million.

Doubts About Authenticity

The record price achieved at auction results from the rules of the art market and should not obscure the significant doubts about the painting's authenticity. Several reasons formally argue against attributing it to Leonardo.

the almost clumsily painted "décolleté" of the androgynous-looking Jesus Christ
the unusually dull frontal depiction, lacking any dynamic movement, untypical for Leonardo
the inconsistently applied sfumato: the hand appears very three-dimensional, while the face, especially around the chin, is painted too soft and blurred
the unusual reflection in the glass orb (commonly explained by the hollow nature of the orb)
the white points on the orb forming a triangle are fundamentally typical of Leonardo's geometric composition, but here they are too obvious. Leonardo always intertwined geometry more playfully with the depiction
the jewel of the brooch from the "Madonna of the Carnation" and the "Madonna Benois" also appears here, supposedly creating a connection to Leonardo via the "Virgin of the Rocks"
before Dianne Modestini's restoration, the painting showed a makeshiftly repaired continuous crack originating from a knot in the wood panel below the brooch. Leonardo was known for always using the finest materials. Panels with knots are prone to cracking and are considered lower-quality wood

For these and numerous other reasons, the majority of art historians do not consider Leonardo the author of the Salvator Mundi. During a special exhibition at the Louvre in Paris in 2019, commemorating the 500th anniversary of Leonardo da Vinci's death, the Salvator Mundi was not displayed. The official reasons remain unknown, but the ongoing debate about its authenticity certainly contributed.

Leonardo da Vinci – Kopf der Madonna aus der Felsgrottenmadonna — Virgin of the Rocks (Detail), Leonardo da Vinci, 1483–1486
The Madonna’s brooch has already appeared in two other disputed works, "Madonna with the Carnation" and "Madonna Benois"

Madonna of the Yarnwinder

1501
Oil on wood, 50.2 × 34.6 cm
Private collection

It is undisputed that this painting is a work from Leonardo's workshop. The most important historical source in this context is the correspondence from spring 1501 between Pietro de' Nuvolari and Leonardo's admirer Isabella d'Este, Duchess of Mantua.

The Correspondence Between Isabella d'Este and Pietro de' Nuvolari

Isabella d'Este was eager to have her portrait painted by Leonardo and asked Pietro to keep her updated on his current projects. On April 3, 1501, he essentially reported that Leonardo was working on a large-scale sketch for the painting of the Virgin and Child with Saint Anne, but was mainly occupied with geometry, "to which all his striving belongs." Otherwise, he "did nothing, though two of his pupils made portraits, and in some cases he occasionally laid hands on them."

A few days later, on April 14, 1501, he wrote again, mentioning a small painting for Robertet, a favorite of the King of France, that was being worked on. He described it as follows: "The small painting he is currently working on is a Madonna sitting as if she wants to wind spindles; the boy places one foot in the basket with the spindles, he has grasped the reel and attentively observes its four spokes, which form a cross. And as he wishes for this cross, he laughs and holds it, for he does not want to give it to the mother, who, it seems, wants to take it from him."

Radiological studies have shown that the boy's right foot was indeed originally in a basket with spindles, as Pietro de' Nuvolari wrote, but this was later painted over.

From Leonardo's Workshop

Today, there is no doubt that the painting for Robertet depicts the present "Madonna of the Yarnwinder." However, there is some uncertainty about Leonardo's degree of involvement. As Pietro de' Nuvolari emphasized, Leonardo had little time for painting at that period due to his geometric studies, making it very likely that two of his pupils executed the portrait while Leonardo occasionally intervened.

This also explains why hardly any work attributed to Leonardo combines so many fragments from his unquestionably authentic paintings. Elements from the following works can be identified:

Virgin of the Rocks (1483–86): the hand position is identical to that of the Virgin of the Rocks (mirrored and rotated about 45°), and the rocks in the right foreground resemble the foremost cliff of the Virgin of the Rocks
Mona Lisa (1503–19): the bridge in the left background corresponds to that of the Mona Lisa
Virgin and Child with Saint Anne (1502–19): the background landscape and the Madonna's head covering
Saint John the Baptist (1513–19): the angle at which the Baptist's staff is inclined and rotated, as well as the child's arm position including the pointing finger

This is all the more remarkable since all the paintings except the Virgin of the Rocks were created after the Madonna of the Yarnwinder. Leonardo seems to have anticipated these elements here, which also indicates that he had a fundamental overall concept for his autograph works.

In addition to the version shown here, a second, less accomplished version (Buccleuch version) exists. Physical examinations have confirmed that both paintings were created simultaneously, as they exhibit the same later-painted corrections.

Together, the two Madonna of the Yarnwinder paintings now appear like a practice exercise by Leonardo for his two best pupils to copy him as accurately as possible. This aligns perfectly with Pietro de' Nuvolari's account, who wrote that Leonardo had no time for painting at that moment, "though two of his pupils make portraits, and in some cases he occasionally lays hands on them." The design likely comes from Leonardo, but aside from a few minor corrections, an autograph work by Leonardo is considered highly unlikely. The work is therefore usually described with the addition "from Leonardo's workshop."

Mona Lisa (Detail), Leonardo da Vinci
The bridge is referenced in Madonna of the Yarnwinder

The Virgin of the Rocks (Detail), Leonardo da Vinci
The protective hand only needs to be mirrored and tilted by 45° to match that of The Madonna of the Yarnwinder

Leda and the Swan

Around 1504(?), lost

Nothing is known about the actual depiction itself. Leonardo's pupil Salai left behind a work that was called by this name. Since it is suspected that he inherited parts of Leonardo's paintings after his death, it is assumed that Leonardo painted a Leda with the Swan. Numerous very similar versions were created by his pupils, making it conceivable that they copied the work from Leonardo.

It is also known that the French royal family, after Leonardo's death, had a Leda with the Swan displayed in their bathroom, but the painting was destroyed by the humidity. The French royal family acquired a large part of Leonardo's unquestionably authentic paintings, but it is unknown whether this Leda with the Swan was part of that collection. The work is therefore considered lost.

Leonardo's influence on the "Leda with the Swan" motif is evident in several drawings on the subject.

Leonardo da Vinci – Studie eines Frauenkopfes — Head of a Young Woman, attributed to Leonardo da Vinci
This drawing is often cited as evidence of Leonardo's work on a Leda painting

Leonardo da Vinci – Zeichnung einer Leda mit dem Schwan — Leda and the Swan (Study), attributed to Leonardo da Vinci

Bacchus

1510–1515
Oil on wood, 177 × 115 cm
Paris, Musée du Louvre

Bacchus is the Roman god of wine and fertility, corresponding to Dionysus in Greek mythology. Originally, the painting is believed to have depicted John the Baptist. Later, the cross was removed from John’s staff and the loincloth was reworked into a leopard skin to display the attributes of Bacchus. Additionally, Bacchus is often shown with vines in his hair and holding a wine cup, which are absent here.

Bacchus is arguably the most successful among the disputed Leonardo works. The color style, parts of the landscape, and the well-executed double image—the large head on the left side of the painting—suggest Leonardo’s authorship. Nevertheless, the work is today mostly regarded as a product of Leonardo’s workshop.

The hair, resembling a Baroque wig, and the Baroque style of the rock behind him, do not indicate Leonardo’s hand, though they could also be part of later overpainting. The seated posture of Bacchus also appears awkward and uncomfortable, which would be untypical for Leonardo.

Finally, it raises the question of why Leonardo would have painted a second work with the same motif after the highly successful John the Baptist (1513).