How did Leonardo da Vinci die?

Very little is known about Leonardo's last three years in France. It is often mentioned in literature that Leonardo was already very frail by that time. A series of strokes is said to have caused paralysis. However, given the many activities Leonardo was engaged in during this period, this portrayal seems less credible.

In this context, it's important to know that all speculations about possible age-related ailments of Leonardo are based solely on two historical sources. Both sources, however, provide very sparse information and are open to varied interpretation. One is a letter from Leonardo dated 1515 to his patron Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici in Rome, the brother of Pope Leo X. The other is the travel report of Antonio de Beatis, which serves as the last source reporting on the still-living Leonardo.

The Letter to Giuliano di Lorenzo de' Medici

In Leonardo's notebooks, a draft of a letter to his patron Giuliano de' Medici is preserved, dated 1515. Giuliano had suffered from a bout of consumption (tuberculosis), and Leonardo begins a letter to him with:

"Regarding the longed-for restoration of Your health, illustrious Sir, I have rejoiced so much that my disease has almost left me." (Codex Atlanticus, folio 671)

However, the sentence can also be translated as:

"I have rejoiced so much, Your Excellency, that you have regained the longed-for health, that it almost made me forget my bad."

In the original, it says at this point "[...], che quasi el mal mio da me s'è fuggito". "Mal mio” has a very general meaning and can refer to something bad, such as evil, illness, misfortune, plague, trouble, adversity, etc. The word also exists in French, where it carries the same meaning.

However, Leonardo does not further address a "disease" in the letter. Instead, he extensively complains to Giuliano about a lazy craftsman who causes him some trouble, in other words, problems, and various minor issues. Thus, the opening sentence of the letter makes more sense when translated as "bad" rather than "disease." Therefore, the limited information in the first sentence of the letter is not evidence of a serious disease of Leonardo.

The Travel Report of Antonio de Beatis

The notion that Leonardo had suffered a series of strokes in France, possibly even earlier in Rome, comes from the travel report of Antonio de Beatis. The complete report of de Beatis' encounter with Leonardo can be read at the end of this page.

Antonio de Beatis was the secretary of Cardinal Luigi d'Aragona. The Cardinal undertook a large-scale diplomatic journey through Western Europe in 1517-1518. He had his secretary, Antonio de Beatis, keep a travel diary during this journey. This travel diary is the last source that reports on the still-living Leonardo.

The Cardinal visited the French King Francis I on October 10, 1517, at Château d'Amboise in France. On that occasion, they also visited Leonardo at the nearby Château du Clos Lucé. Antonio Beatis made a few notes about it. He describes an "elderly Leonardo da Vinci" (Leonardo was only 65 at the time) and notes: "unfortunately, one can no longer expect anything from the master, as his right side is paralyzed." He does not provide further details about Leonardo's health.

Did Leonardo Have a Series of Strokes?

Based on the limited information, it is often inferred that Leonardo must have had one or more strokes, as partial paralysis is a typical symptom of strokes. However, it's overlooked that Leonardo was left-handed and predominantly used his left arm, resulting in noticeably limited use of his right arm. This behavior might have given strangers the impression that Leonardo's right side was paralyzed. Furthermore, it should be noted that even after 1517, the year of de Beatis' visit, Leonardo continued to make entries in his notebook, as dated records from 1518 show. These entries include detailed drawings. Therefore, de Beatis' impression is difficult to reconcile.

Was Leonardo an Old Man?

Against the description of an "elderly Leonardo" as referred to by de Beatis, it's worth noting that at least until mid-1518, Leonardo was actively traveling through the Loire Valley to plan or oversee construction activities. Distances between Amboise, Chambord, Blois, and Romorantin were significant in those times. For the distances of up to 60 kilometers, Leonardo would have required approximately 1-2 days if he traveled by carriage into the partially undeveloped regions. These would have been considerable hardships for an elderly person, especially one who was partially paralyzed.

On June 24, 1518, ten months before his death, Leonardo noted that he had left the construction site of the royal palace in Romorantin and was going to Château du Clos Lucé. This is Leonardo's last dated entry. As Leonardo did not date all entries in his notebooks, it cannot be ruled out that he continued to travel through the Loire Valley after June 24, 1518. The date holds significant symbolic value. June 24 is the feast day of Saint John the Baptist, Leonardo's hometown of Florence's highest holiday as St. John is the city's patron saint. Leonardo's last painting is a depiction of St. John the Baptist.

Leonardo da Vinci passed away on May 2, 1519. He was only 67 years old. His death was probably not unexpected, as he had made his will a week prior. There are no contemporary sources providing exact details about the circumstances of his death. Particularly because the roughly 20 years younger Michelangelo was able to reach the advanced age of 88, Leonardo's lifespan is often perceived as too short.

Vasari's Account of Leonardo's Death

Giorgio Vasari was a painter and architect from Florence. He is considered the first art historian and is known today primarily for his biographies of artists. His biography of Leonardo is considered the first comprehensive description of Leonardo's life. However, this biography was written about 30 years after Leonardo's death and first published in 1550. When Leonardo died, Vasari was only seven years old.

"In the end, having become old, he lay ill for many months, and as death approached, he wanted to be instructed with all diligence in the Catholic rite and the true doctrine of the holy Christian religion. He confessed repentantly with many tears, and although he could no longer stand on his feet, he received the holy sacrament outside of bed, supported by the arms of his friends and servants. The king, who visited him often and with affection, came to him shortly afterward. Leonardo raised himself with reverence to sit in bed, described his ailment to him with all circumstances, and complained that he had erred against God and mankind by not having done his duty in his art. This effort brought on a stronger attack that was a harbinger of death. The king rose and held his head to give him aid and favor to alleviate his suffering. Leonardo's divine spirit recognized that he could not be bestowed a greater honor, and he passed away in the arms of the king at the age of 75."

The legend that Leonardo died in the arms of the French King Francis I is attributed to Vasari. On the day of Leonardo's death, Francis I was celebrating the birth of his second son Henri (*March 31, 1519) in Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Vasari's accounts are generally known for containing numerous inaccuracies. Among other errors, Vasari incorrectly states Leonardo's age at the time of death. He lists Leonardo as 75 years old, whereas Leonardo actually passed away at the age of 67. Nonetheless, Vasari's portrayal of Leonardo's life greatly contributed to the legend-building around Leonardo. Many artists and art historians still reference his depictions to this day. The painting "The Death of Leonardo da Vinci" (1818) by the renowned artist Ingres is based on Vasari's account.

About a week before Leonardo's death, on April 23, 1519, the notary Boreau came to Château du Clos Lucé, and Leonardo drafted his will. The complete text of Leonardo's will can be found at the end of this page.

The fact that Leonardo was allowed to make a will, meaning he could determine the fate of his possessions, was only possible due to a special permission from the king. As Leonardo was not a member of the nobility, according to the laws of the time, his entire estate would have gone to the king.

Summary of the Will

The will can be divided into two parts: Leonardo's wishes for his burial and the distribution of his possessions.

Details about the Burial Ceremony

• Leonardo wished to be buried in the Church of Saint-Florentin in Amboise. The church is named after Saint Florentin, and the name Florentin is derived from the Latin verb "florens" (meaning "blooming"), which also relates to Leonardo's hometown of Florence. Florence's emblem is a blooming lily, which was also the emblem of the royal French court
• Before the burial, three solemn and thirty silent masses were held in the four churches of the royal residence in Amboise
• Leonardo's coffin was carried from Château du Clos Lucé to the Church of Saint-Florentin by the chaplains of the church
• The coffin was accompanied by 60 poor individuals, each carrying a large candle, as well as representatives from the Church of Saint-Florentin and dignitaries from the other three churches
• The sixty candles were then divided equally among the four churches of Amboise, resulting in 15 candles per church.

Details about the Inheritance

• Leonardo's student Francesco Melzi (age 28) was named executor of the will. He received Leonardo's notes, books, tools, clothing, as well as outstanding wages and the money present in Château du Clos Lucé
• Leonardo's brothers received his assets in the Florentine bank (400 gold ecus, approximately 1.4 kg of gold)
• His student Salai (around 39 years old) received half of a property near Milan
• His servant Vilanis received the other half, along with the rights to draw water from the navigable canal of St. Christopher in Milan – a right originally granted to Leonardo by King Louis XII – as well as all the furniture and utensils in Château du Clos Lucé.
• His maid Maturina received fine clothing and two ducats (equivalent to about 2-3 months' salary)
• A small sum was also donated to the poor in the vicinity of Amboise (70 soldi = 3.5 Lira, roughly an average monthly salary).

Fate of the Notebooks and Paintings

Leonardo's Notebooks

Most of what is known about Leonardo today comes from his own notebooks, called codices. Francesco Melzi preserved them in his villa near Vaprio d'Adda in Milan. Modern estimates suggest that there could have been up to 20,000 pages, some bound, some individual sheets. Melzi began organizing the vast collection of notes and adding his own annotations. After his death, the collection scattered across Europe. In the 19th century, efforts began to reunite them. Today, the codices are housed in museums in Madrid, London, Paris, Turin, Milan, and Rome. Another is in the possession of entrepreneur Bill Gates (Codex Leicester).

Leonardo's Paintings

From the travel report of Antonio de Beatis, it is evident that some of Leonardo's paintings remained in his possession. These include "La Belle Ferronnière," "Annunciation," "Mona Lisa," and "St. John the Baptist." After Leonardo's death, his paintings were likely in the possession of his student Salai. Salai died in 1524 after an unspecified conflict. His wife Blanca de Anono and his sisters Angelina and Laurentiola disputed his estate afterward. A notarial document shows that the estate primarily consisted of paintings.

From the Notarial Records of Pietro Paolo Crevenna:
"In the name of the Lord, from his birth in the fifteen hundred and twenty-fifth year [1525], the thirtieth announcement, on Friday, April 1. John Jacobus de Caprotis de Oprena, known as Salay, painter until January 29, 1524, died a violent death and left the ladies Angelina and Laurentiola, sisters of Caprotis de Opprena, as his legitimate sisters and heirs in equal parts, and also the lady Blanca de Anono, his lawful wife [...]

1 painting, called Leda, 200 scudi [Leda with the Swan?]
1 painting, called Holy Anna, 100 scudi [Virgin and Child with Saint Anne?]
1 painting, woman slightly turned back, called La Joconde, 100 scudi [Mona Lisa?]
1 large painting with a St. John the Baptist, 80 scudi [Bacchus?]
1 painting with a large St. Jerome, 40 scudi [St. Jerome?]
1 painting with a semi-naked woman, 25 scudi [Monna Vanna?]
1 painting with a semi-naked St. Jerome, 25 scudi [St. Jerome?]
1 small painting with a young St. John, 25 scudi [St. John the Baptist?]
1 painting with a Christ as God the Father, 25 scudi
1 Madonna with her child in her arms, 20 scudi [Madonna with the Spindle?]
1 Christ at the Column, unfinished, 5 scudi
[...]"

Based on their titles, the mentioned paintings could be attributed to Leonardo. The fact that they were valued as commissioned works is noteworthy, as high-quality painters could demand between 100 and 300 scudi, depending on the size of the painting. Paintings or portraits that were not directly commissioned were typically valued much lower.

The circumstances surrounding how these paintings came into the possession of the French king are unknown. It's possible that the originals Leonardo brought to France never left the French royal court, as Salai might have possessed only good copies made by Leonardo's students or possibly even by Leonardo himself.

Historical sources on Leonardo's funeral are not known. However, it can be assumed that it took place as it was stipulated in Leonardo's will. It is certain that he was buried in the church of Saint-Florentin mentioned there, because in the register of the Royal Chapter of the church of Saint-Florentin the following entry can be found:

"In the cloister of this church was buried: Master Lionard de Vincy, Noble of Milan, first painter, engineer and architect to the King, State Expert of Mechanics and former Director of Painting to the Duke of Milan."

The church of Saint-Florentin has been preserved, but Leonardo's tomb was destroyed during the Huguenot Wars (1562-1598). His remains were considered lost ever since. Later excavation work on the site uncovered human bones believed to be Leonardo's remains. They were transferred to the Chapel of St. Hubert, located on the grounds of the chateau in Amboise. Leonardo's assumed tomb has been opened to the public and can be visited.

A Youtube video shows the interior of the chapel. At the time the video was recorded, there is a large bouquet of white lilies on the right side of the altar. Lilies were the symbol of royal France, and a stylized lily still adorns the coat of arms of Florence, Leonardo's hometown.

[For better readability, the text is provided with paragraphs and headings.]

[Introduction]

"It shall be made known to all those present and those who may join us later, that at the court of the King, our Sovereign, in Amboise, Master Leonardo da Vinci, Painter to the King, has personally appeared before us; He is currently staying in the place Cloux, near Amboise, and considering the certainty of death and the uncertainty of its hour, he has declared and confessed before the aforementioned court, to which he has submitted and subjected himself, and before us, that by the wording of this document, he has made and established his last will and testament in the following manner. Above all else, he commends his soul to the Lord our God, the glorious Virgin Mary, the holy Archangel Michael, and all the blessed angels and saints in Paradise.

[Burial, Procession, and Services in Four Churches]

Furthermore, the said testator expresses his wish to be interred in the church of Saint-Florentin in Amboise, with his remains to be carried there by the chaplains of the church.

Furthermore, his remains shall be conveyed from the aforementioned place to the church of Saint-Florentin by the college of the said church, namely the rector and the prior, or by the deputies and the chaplains of the church of Saint-Denis in Amboise, as well as by the Minorites of the aforementioned place, and before his remains are brought into the church, the testator wishes that three high masses be celebrated in the aforementioned church of St. Florentin with a deacon and subdeacon, and on the day when three high masses are celebrated, thirty Gregorian silent masses shall also be held.

Furthermore, the same services shall be celebrated in the church of St. Denis as stated above.

Furthermore, the same services shall be celebrated in the church of the aforementioned monks and Minorite brothers.

[Books and Instruments to Francesco Melzi]

Moreover, the same testator gives and bequeaths to Master Francesco de Melzi, gentleman from Milan, as compensation for the services rendered to him in the past through his own courtesy, all and each of the books that the testator currently possesses, as well as the instruments and treatises on his art and the techniques of the painter.

[Land in Milan to Salai and Battista de Vilanis]

Moreover, the same testator gives and bequeaths to his servant Battista de Vilanis, forever and ever, half, that is, half of the garden he owns outside the gates of Milan, and the other half of the same garden to his servant Salai; in this garden, the aforementioned Salai has built and constructed a house, which shall also belong to the aforementioned Salai, his heirs and successors, forever and ever, as compensation for the good and welcome services that his servants, the aforementioned de Vilanis and Salai, have rendered to him, from now on and forever.

[Cloak and Payment to Maturina]

Furthermore, the same testator gives his maid Maturina an upper garment made of good black cloth, lined with leather, and a one-time payment of two ducats: also as compensation for the good services that the same Maturina has rendered to him, from now on and forever.

[Funeral Procession with 60 Candles]

Furthermore, he wishes that at his burial, sixty large wax candles be carried by sixty poor persons, to whom, at the discretion of the aforementioned Melzi, money shall be given, and these wax candles shall be distributed among the four mentioned churches.

[Additional Candles for the Four Churches]

Furthermore, the same testator gives each of the aforementioned churches ten pounds of wax in the form of large candles, which shall be placed in the aforementioned churches to serve on the day when the aforementioned services are held.

[Donations to the Poor]

Furthermore, the poor in the hospice, the poor of Saint Lazarus of Amboise, shall receive something, and for this, the sum and amount of seventy soldi tornesi shall be given and paid to the treasurers of this brotherhood.

[Outstanding Wages and Clothes to Francesco Melzi]

Furthermore, the same testator gives and bequeaths to the aforementioned present and consenting Master Francesco da Melzi the remainder of his salary due up to the day of his death and the sum of money owed to him by the treasurer or chief chamberlain M. Johan Sapin, and the sum of money he has received from the aforementioned Sapin as his said salary, and in the event that the aforementioned Melzi predeceases the aforementioned Melzi, and no other, [he bequeaths him] the funds that, according to his account, are currently in the possession of the aforementioned testator at the aforementioned place Cloux. And likewise, he gives and bequeaths to the aforementioned Melzi all his clothes that he currently possesses in the aforementioned place Cloux, both as a reward for the good and pleasant services he has rendered to him, from today and at all times, and as payment and fee for the effort he may have from executing this will, all, however, at the expense of the aforementioned testator.

[Bank Assets to Leonardo's Brothers]

He determines and wills that the sum of four hundred Sun-EcUs, which is kept in the hands of the treasurer of Santa Maria Nuova in the city of Florence, be given to his legitimate brothers living in Florence, and in addition, the interest and income owed to the said treasurer by the said testator until today on the said four hundred EcUs, from the day they were handed over and entrusted to the said treasurers by the said testator.

[Francesco Melzi to Execute the Will]

Furthermore, the said testator wants and determines that the said Master Francesco da Melzi is the sole and exclusive executor of the entire testament of the said testator, and that the said testament fully and completely takes effect, and that what has been declared and said is maintained and observed, monitored and followed, the said testator, Master Leonardo da Vinci, who herein appears himself, hereby binds and obliges his heirs and successors with all his present and future movable and immovable property, and has expressly waived all to the contrary.

[Witnesses and Closing Formula]

Given in the aforementioned place Cloux, in the presence of Magister Spirito Fleri, vicar of the church of St. Denis in Amboise, M. Guilelmo Croysant, parish priest and chaplain, Magister Cipriane Fulchin, Friar Francesco de Corton and Francesco of Milan, friar of the Minorite monastery in Amboise, who were summoned and summoned as witnesses for the aforementioned court, and in the presence of the aforementioned, consenting and consenting Master Francesco da Melzi, who, by his faith and oath on his body, which was personally given to us, has promised never to do anything against it, never to say anything against it, never to take any action against it. As a sign of truthfulness and as required and set forth in the legal contracts of Amboise, sealed with the royal seal. Given on the 23rd day of April 1518, before Easter.

[Rights to the Navigable Canal of St. Christoph to Battista de Vilanis]

And on the 23rd of April 1518, in the presence of M. Guilelmo Borian, royal notary at the court of Amboise, the aforementioned Master Leonardo da Vinci, in his testament and the aforementioned disposition of his last will and testament, granted the aforementioned present and consenting M. Battista de Vilanis the right to the waters belonging to the navigable canal of St. Christoph in the Duchy of Milan, which the late King Louis XII, preserved in venerable memory, had once given to the said da Vinci, so that the aforementioned de Vilanis can always enjoy it in the manner of the aforementioned gentleman who gave it to him. In the presence of Master Francesco da Melzi, gentleman of Milan, and myself.

[Furniture and Utensils to Battista de Vilanis]

And on the aforementioned day of the aforementioned month of April in the aforementioned year 1518, the aforementioned Master Leonardo da Vinci, in his testament and the aforementioned disposition of his last will, gave the aforementioned Master Battista de Vilanis, currently present and consenting, all and each of his furniture and utensils from his present house in the aforementioned Cloux, but only in the event that the aforementioned de Vilanis outlives the aforementioned Master Leonardo da Vinci; in the presence of the aforementioned Master Francesco da Melzi and myself, Notary, etc., Boreau."

The Dating of the Will

The dating of the will to 2018 often leads to confusion. Today, it is likely that this was merely a writing error.

• The testament is dated by the notary Boreau as "23.04.1518, before Easter"
• Easter Sunday in 1518, however, fell on April 4, so in the testament, it should have been "23.04.1518, after Easter" (and not "before")
• In contrast, Easter Sunday in 1519 fell on April 24, so "23.04.1519, before Easter" would have been correct (Leonardo's year of death)

It is therefore very likely that Leonardo's testament was not written in 1518, but in 1519, and it was a confusion of the notary or the scribe. This is relevant because the correct dating suggests that Leonardo knew he would soon die, indicating acute suffering.