Alternative titles
La Belle Ferronière (with only one n).
The Louvre officially designates the painting as “Portrait de femme, dit à tort La Belle Ferronnière” (French: Portrait of a woman, erroneously called La Belle Ferronnière).
Meaning of the name
Leonardo himself did not give the work a title. The title can be translated as The Beautiful Ferronnière and goes back to a confusion by the well-known painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres. He believed the sitter to be Madame Ferron, known as La Belle Ferronnière, a legendary mistress of the French king Francis I (1494–1547), and around 1800 he created a copy of the painting with the incorrect caption La Belle Ferronnière, which quickly gained wide circulation.
Ferronière (with only one n) in French denotes the wife of a blacksmith or ironmonger (from French fer = iron) and again refers to Madame Ferron who, according to one tradition, was said to have been the wife of a certain Ferron, that is, a blacksmith or ironmonger. According to other versions of the legend, this Monsieur Ferron was a Parisian lawyer.
Due to Ingres’s confusion, a forehead ornament of this type – a narrow headband with a jewel at the center – is referred to as a Ferronnière after this painting.
Artist
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
Date
1495–1499 or 1516–1519
Technique
Oil on wood (walnut)
Dimensions
45 × 63 cm
Genre
Portrait – half-length – three-quarter profile
Short description
Female half-length portrait with a stern expression and calm posture. The sitter wears a delicate headband (Ferronnière), a red dress with golden embroidery, and looks slightly to the right. The background is entirely black, and a parapet in the foreground separates the sitter from the viewer.
Era
Renaissance
Provenance
Musée du Louvre, Paris (inventory number: 778)
Owner
France
Market value
Not for sale
Insurance value
The Louvre does not publish official insurance values. According to estimates, the insurance value would be in the range of several hundred million euros, comparable to other paintings by Leonardo.
Special features
No signature
Title based on a historical misattribution
The identity of the sitter is disputed, as is the exact period of origin. The Louvre names Lucrezia Crivelli, a mistress of Ludovico Sforza and mother of his son.
The painting’s structure and proportions clearly refer to the square. Its format follows the ratio 1 : √2 (1 : 1.41), the same proportion as today’s DIN A4 format, which is derived geometrically from the diagonal of a square. The upper edge of the wall, the highest point of the head, and the lateral borders of the painting form a square (white transparent), and even the rectangular gemstone in the headband is split down the middle—into two adjacent squares (red/green)
When the square is divided vertically and horizontally, the vertical bisector intersects the left pupil exactly. The horizontal bisector meets the headpiece of the uppermost band with precision (top pink ellipse). The six visible headpieces of the bands appear clearly arranged into two groups of three, each assigned to one of the two lower quadrants
The golden section of the painting’s width and height intersect at the headpiece of the band on the necklace (mouseover). The golden section of the painting’s height also meets two of the three headpieces on her left shoulder (mouseover, pink ellipses). When the golden section of the painting’s height is divided again according to the golden section (continuous division), it passes through the jewel of the headband
The arrangement of the lines in the lower left square is reminiscent of depictions of crucifixions
The junction points of the three right-hand bands form an equilateral triangle of 120°. Its base lies at the golden section of the height of the surrounding square (orange line). The apex of this triangle, the center parting of the hair, and the center of the lower left square form a triangle with the symbolic interior angles 45°, 60°, and 75° (yellow triangle)
The prominent forehead jewel is embedded in a system of geometric dependencies that resemble an astronomical sketch (mouseover)
The two upper quadrants form a single unit. The optical center of this area is a rectangular gemstone of the forehead jewel, composed of two adjoining squares
La Belle Ferronnière
by Leonardo da Vinci
What is beautiful and mortal passes away and does not endure
Painting description
A young woman in three-quarter profile stands (or sits) in a dark room, illuminated from the left. Her body is turned toward the light, her gaze passes over her left shoulder, looking past the viewer on the right. She is positioned behind a wall that covers her from the waist down. Her arms hang down at her sides, with her hands remaining hidden behind the wall.
She wears the red dress of a noblewoman, embroidered with gold-colored lines that run vertically and horizontally across the fabric in strict geometry, both along the center and on the sleeves. At chest height, the lines form two crosses. Along the sides of the dress, the lines curve in arches. The green trim of her rectangular neckline is adorned with artfully stitched golden fleurs-de-lis.
Over each shoulder lies a loosely attached white band, to which three additional bands are tied at regular intervals. A seventh band falls from her four-times-wrapped necklace of alternating black and white links. Her left cheek reflects the light of her shoulder.
Her close-fitting hair is parted in the middle and tied back into a braid in such a way that it covers her ear. On the back of her head rests a circular, sieve-like net made of tightly joined rings. It is held in place by a very narrow black band that runs around her head. At the center of her forehead, a small ornament is attached to it: a rectangular gemstone surrounded by six small round gemstones arranged in a circle.
Who was La Belle Ferronnière?
The identity of the young woman remains unresolved to this day. In principle, two mutually exclusive theories are discussed. According to one, the painting was created between 1495 and 1499 and depicts Lucrezia Crivelli, a lady of the Milanese court — this is the position held by the Louvre. According to the other, it is a late work by Leonardo, created between 1516 and 1519 at the French court in Amboise and depicting Madame Ferron, an alleged mistress of the French king Francis I.
A lady from Milan — Lucrezia Crivelli
With a high degree of probability, the painting depicts Lucrezia Crivelli. Little is known about Lucrezia’s life. She was born around 1470 and came from a Milanese noble family that owned estates around Lake Como, north of Milan. In April 1494, Lucrezia married the Milanese courtier Giovanni Andrea Monastirolo from Cremona. Shortly afterward, their daughter Bona was born. Around 1495, Lucrezia became lady-in-waiting to Duchess Beatrice d’Este (*1475), the young wife of the Milanese duke Ludovico Sforza (*1452).
Lady-in-waiting to Beatrice d’Este
Beatrice d’Este had been betrothed to Ludovico at the age of five. The marriage was politically motivated and served primarily to enhance the duke’s prestige. The princely d’Este family belonged to the ancient high nobility of northern Italy and ruled over the united duchy of Modena and Ferrara, east of Milan. The d’Este were considered highly cultivated and were widely known for their patronage of the fine arts.
Ludovico’s father, Francesco Sforza, by contrast, was a low-born mercenary leader who, through great military and political skill, gained control of the Duchy of Milan after marrying the only daughter of the ruling Visconti family. His son Ludovico was not the legitimate heir to the throne, but merely regent for the still minor duke Gian Galeazzo Maria Sforza, his nephew. Gian Galeazzo died in 1494 at the age of only 25 under dubious circumstances after asserting claims to the throne. Afterward, Ludovico ruled as Duke of Milan. His policies were aimed at preserving the power of the important duchy.
Ludovico married the sixteen-year-old Beatrice in January 1491, while at the same time maintaining a mistress, Cecilia Gallerani — known through Leonardo’s portrait of the Lady with an Ermine. She was expecting a child by Ludovico. At Beatrice’s urging, Cecilia was banished from the Milanese court shortly after the wedding. Four months later, she gave birth to Ludovico’s son, Cesare Sforza (1491). She was lavishly rewarded, granted estates, and married to a noble retainer of Ludovico.
Mistress of Ludovico Sforza
The marriage of the power-conscious duke and the educated, cultivated Beatrice d’Este was considered unhappy. In 1495, four years after the wedding and after the birth of two sons, Ludovico humiliated Beatrice by taking her lady-in-waiting Lucrezia Crivelli as his mistress. Beatrice attempted to persuade the duke to banish Lucrezia as well, but he refused. Beatrice d’Este died tragically in January 1497 during the birth of her third child, who also died. She was only 22 years old.
The duke showed profound grief. He withdrew from public life for about two weeks, had part of his chambers draped in black cloth, and dressed only in black himself. Beatrice received a grand funeral accompanied by nationwide masses. Eventually he commissioned the sculptor Cristoforo Solari to create a double tomb for himself and Beatrice — two recumbent marble figures as a sign of enduring connectedness.
Whether the duke’s public display of mourning was part of a political performance, intended perhaps to demonstrate his loyalty to the neighboring duchy of the d’Este, remains uncertain, for only four months after Beatrice’s death Lucrezia Crivelli gave birth to his son Giovanni Paolo Sforza in the autumn of 1497. This suggests that he had impregnated Lucrezia while his wife Beatrice was still pregnant. Lucrezia’s illegitimate son was later legitimized and, in 1532, became the first marquess of the town of Caravaggio. Lucrezia herself was granted numerous estates around Lake Como.
Ludovico Sforza was expelled from Milan by the French in 1499 and deposed. Although he briefly recaptured Milan in the spring of 1500, he was betrayed and taken prisoner. According to research by art historians at the Louvre, Lucrezia was pregnant by him again at that time.
Life after the Milanese court
With the duke’s expulsion, Lucrezia lost her estates at Lake Como, but she remained part of Milanese noble society. Around the same time, her husband died, and she remarried: Gaspare del Conte, who, however, died in 1508 — as did Ludovico Sforza, who spent his final years in French captivity.
After the Sforza returned to power in 1526, the new duke, a son of Ludovico, granted her an annual pension. She did not, however, regain her lost estates at Lake Como. Lucrezia died in April 1534 in Milan at about 70 years of age.
Her daughter from her first marriage, Bona Monastirolo, married Giovanni Pietro Bergamini — the eldest son of Cecilia Gallerani, the Lady with an Ermine and Lucrezia’s predecessor as the duke’s mistress.
Did Leonardo portray a lady from Milan?
Leonardo may have portrayed another mistress of the Milanese duke in Lucrezia Crivelli — just as he had previously portrayed Cecilia Gallerani, the Lady with an Ermine. It is absolutely not the same person. The two sitters show no resemblance whatsoever, and in the surviving letters in which Cecilia, for example, lent her portrait to Isabella d’Este, the sister of Beatrice d’Este, there is no indication that she knew of or possessed a second painting of herself.
A poem by Antonio Tebaldeo, praising a painting said to have been made by Leonardo da Vinci of a certain Lucrezia, is often cited as further evidence for a portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli (the short text appears at the end of this page). Leonardo undoubtedly knew this poem, in which both he and Lucrezia are mentioned in connection with a painting, since it appears in one of his notebooks (Codex Atlanticus, folio 456 verso) — although not, as was otherwise his habit, written in mirror script. The poet Tebaldeo was the tutor of Isabella d’Este, Marquise of Mantua and sister-in-law of the Milanese duke. He was therefore well informed about events at the Milanese court — including the fact that Leonardo created a portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli. Tebaldeo had previously written a poem about Leonardo’s portrait of Cecilia Gallerani.
Also well attested is the existence of a portrait of a “certain lady from Milan,” mentioned by an eyewitness in connection with a visit to Leonardo at the French court, two years before Leonardo’s death (the travel report of Antonio de Beatis, 1517). Since only two portraits from Leonardo’s Milanese period are known, and the portrait of Cecilia Gallerani remained in her possession until her death in 1536, the lady from Milan mentioned could refer to the Belle Ferronnière or to a portrait now lost. This would also mean that Lucrezia never received the painting, or that she left it in Leonardo’s care — which would fit well with the political turmoil triggered by the duke’s expulsion.
The fashion of the sitter also aligns with the culture of the Milanese court: the loosely hanging bands on the dress of the Belle Ferronnière appear in a similar form in a depiction of Beatrice d’Este on the so-called Sforza Altarpiece. This is often taken as further evidence that the sitter belonged to the Milanese court circle. Under no circumstances, however, did Leonardo create a portrait of Beatrice d’Este with the Belle Ferronnière. The Belle Ferronnière bears no resemblance to realistic sculptural likenesses of Beatrice, such as a bust in the Louvre or her tomb slab — both of which strongly resemble each other, yet show no resemblance to the Belle Ferronnière.
The dress of the lavishly adorned Beatrice shows the same hanging bands at the shoulder area, the strongly geometric patterns, and the rectangular neckline as that of the Belle Ferronnière. It is reasonable to assume that her lady-in-waiting Lucrezia Crivelli dressed in a similar manner.
The fact that Beatrice d’Este’s facial features here differ greatly from those of the bust in the Louvre can be attributed to the limited artistic skill of the now-unknown master, evident for example in the incorrect shading of the little finger on the left-hand side behind Beatrice, which makes the finger appear oddly deformed
The Marquise of Mantua and sister of Beatrice d’Este was a constant admirer of Leonardo and requested a portrait from him several times. After the fall of the duke, he stayed at her court for several months. He may have portrayed her here as a small gesture of goodwill. Full profiles of this kind, however, were considered by Leonardo to lack expressiveness, and he likely would never have executed it in this form. Noteworthy are the short bands on the lady’s left shoulder and the suggested bows on the right side. Together with the likewise rectangular neckline and the geometric pattern of the dress, a certain resemblance to the Belle Ferronnière can also be observed here
The bust was created around the time of her marriage to Ludovico Sforza. Above all, her round face and the area beneath the eyes differ markedly from those of the Belle Ferronnière. The narrow headband Beatrice wears also holds a hairnet at the back of her head (not shown). No jewel is attached to the headband
Ludovico was still alive when the tomb slab was created. The now-empty tomb was originally intended for the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, whose adjoining refectory houses Leonardo’s Last Supper. Although created by a different artist, the facial features of Beatrice strongly resemble those of the bust on the left. The depictions can therefore be considered lifelike
A mistress of the French king — La Belle Ferronnière
According to a second — completely opposite — theory, the painting is not from Leonardo’s Milanese period but was created during the last three years of his life, when he stayed at the court of the French king Francis I between 1516 and 1519. In this view, it is said to depict Madame Ferron, a legendary mistress of the king who was called La Belle Ferronnière. Although Francis I was very public about his affairs, there is no historical source that confirms the existence of this Madame Ferron.
The French king was Leonardo’s last patron for three years. He was 25 years old when Leonardo died
The full-profile painting emphasizes the king’s prominent nose
The legend of Madame Ferron
The lustful King Francis I is said to have taken the young Madame Ferron as his mistress around 1524. At court she was known by her nickname La Belle Ferronnière. Her jealous husband, a certain Ferron, is said to have been so enraged that he decided to take bitter revenge. He allegedly went to a notorious brothel in order to deliberately infect himself with syphilis. His wife then supposedly infected the king, who thereby became infertile. Madame Ferron is said to have died about six years later, while the king supposedly suffered for another 23 years until his death in 1547.
Because Madame Ferron later appeared in transcriptions sometimes as Ferronnière and sometimes as Ferronière — that is, with one or two n’s — it is occasionally claimed that she was the wife of a blacksmith or ironmonger. Ferronière derives from the French word fer (“iron”). The ending -ier / -ière usually denotes a profession in French. A ferronière is therefore a woman who works with iron — in historical understanding, the wife of a blacksmith or ironmonger (Old French “ferron”). According to other versions of the legend, Madame Ferron was the wife of a Parisian lawyer, Jean Ferron.
Veracity of the legend
The legend goes back to the writings of the French nobleman Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme (1540–1614), and is by no means historical. Rather, it was Brantôme’s way of life to spread the most scandalous gossip about the European courts. His superficial tales were widely printed and enjoyed great popularity.
Around the same time, the same legend was spread by the well-known French physician Louis Guyon, seigneur de la Nauche (1527–1617). His achievements included the development of a special treatment regimen and several scholarly books. He was later even elevated to the nobility. Like Brantôme, he was famous for the gossip and anecdotes he published on the side.
However, the legend cannot be true for several reasons:
- Francis I died in 1547. Brantôme as well as Louis Guyon were still very young at that time (20 and 7 years old, respectively) and could therefore only have repeated hearsay
- There is no historical evidence that Francis I had a mistress known as La Belle Ferronnière
- There is no historical evidence that Francis I ever contracted syphilis. Nor did he become infertile, since he fathered a son two years before his death (Nicolas d’Estouteville, 1545)
- Leonardo could not have painted Madame Ferron. He died in 1519 — five years before the alleged affair is said to have begun
The “Petite Bande”
The idea that the painting could depict a mistress of the French king Francis I also traces back to Brantôme for another reason. In his work “Vies des Dames Galantes et des dames illustres” (1665, published posthumously), he portrays Francis I as a womanizer. In addition to his queen and his official mistresses, he is said to have gathered around him a group of young women known as the Petite Bande (“little band”), with whom he also fulfilled his erotic desires. As with the legend of Madame Ferron, there is no historical evidence for the existence of such a Petite Bande apart from Brantôme’s account.
Origin of the designation “La Belle Ferronnière”
Although Leonardo’s painting has no connection to the legend of Madame Ferron, the legend is nonetheless the origin of the painting’s modern name.
The painter Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres (1780–1867) worked between 1802 and 1806, only a few years after the French Revolution, together with the painter Lefèvre on an engraving after Leonardo’s portrait. They titled the print La Belle Ferronnière, mistakenly believing it to be Leonardo’s portrait of Madame Ferron. The engraving spread quickly, as it was reproduced in numerous books of the time. The story of the betrayed husband who lost his wife to the king and, in revenge, doomed both to death through syphilis suited the tastes of post-revolutionary France — and Leonardo’s portrait provided an especially appealing image for it.
As a result, in the early 19th century Leonardo’s painting became one of the most visited works in the Louvre. Since Ingres’s incorrect designation — La Belle Ferronnière — quickly became established among the public, the Louvre began in the 19th century to label Leonardo’s painting as “Portrait de femme, dit à tort La Belle Ferronnière” (“Portrait of a woman, erroneously called La Belle Ferronnière”) in order to draw attention to the mistake. This remains the painting’s official title today.
In addition, another portrait in the Louvre’s collection was designated as “Portrait of a woman, called La Belle Ferronnière” (Louvre, Inv. 786). The reason why the Louvre chose this designation is unclear today. Little is known about this painting, except that it was mistakenly attributed to Leonardo in the 1683 catalog of the royal collection. However, it can be considered certain that it does not depict the actual Belle Ferronnière, since such a person has no historical basis.
Why exactly this portrait of an unknown lady should represent the fictional Madame Ferron from Brantôme’s tale is unclear. The designation for this otherwise art-historically insignificant work appears arbitrary. Notable, however, is the distinctive shape of the nose, which evokes associations with Francis I.
This engraving, bearing the incorrect caption “La Belle Ferronnière,” is the reason for the modern designation of Leonardo’s painting
Cecilia Gallerani was the previous mistress of the Duke of Milan and the mother of his son. Around 1800 a Polish princess acquired the painting and believed she recognized in it the legendary Belle Ferronnière. She had an inscription added in the upper left corner: LA BELE FERONIERE / LEONARD DAWINCI. This shows how widespread the legend was around 1800
Conclusion on the identity of the Belle Ferronnière
It has become clear how difficult it is to determine the identity of the Belle Ferronnière with certainty.
The painting was either created in Milan between 1495 and 1499 and depicts Lucrezia Crivelli, who entered the Milanese court around 1495 as lady-in-waiting to Beatrice d’Este. With the French invasion of 1499, the rule of the Duke of Milan came to an end — by that time at the latest, the portrait would have been completed. Overall, this theory appears the most plausible. Lucrezia Crivelli was the duke’s last mistress and — like Cecilia Gallerani, the Lady with an Ermine — the mother of one of his sons. The contemporary poet Antonio Tebaldeo dedicated a poem to her and mentioned a portrait by Leonardo in it. The Louvre, as the exhibiting museum, also holds the view that the sitter is Lucrezia Crivelli.
Alternatively, the painting could have been created at the French court between 1516 and 1519 and depict a now-unknown mistress of the king — either Madame Ferron or a lady from the circle of the Petite Bande. Due to the lack of historical evidence for the existence of these women, however, this theory appears unconvincing. The main sources come from authors known for scandalous tales and who were still very young during the reign of Francis I, making it likely that their accounts were based on hearsay, if not entirely invented.
Symbolism
Even though the painting appears simple at first glance and seems to offer no obvious indications of symbolic meaning, it is in fact rich in subtle references. They reveal that Leonardo made both the patron Ludovico Sforza and his mistress Lucrezia Crivelli present within the painting through allusions to their names — and perhaps even himself.
The headband
The Belle Ferronnière wears a narrow black headband used to hold the decorative hairnet at the back of her head. A headband of this kind is called a Lenza (Italian for line, cord). It is certainly no coincidence that Leonardo painted the Lenza almost perfectly straight, that is, like a line. After all, he could have curved it more strongly to emphasize the roundness of the head.
Leonardo uses jewelry in his portraits deliberately to create points of emphasis. The Lady with an Ermine, for instance, wears only a necklace of black pearls, which were extremely rare and therefore especially precious. In the Mona Lisa, Leonardo omits jewelry altogether. The forehead ornament is all the more distinctive in the Belle Ferronnière. It forms a counterpoint to the decorative necklace, which appears fashionable but not particularly valuable. The forehead jewel, by contrast, is discreet and not excessively large, yet positioned so that it cannot be overlooked. It can be understood as an allusion to the material gain Lucrezia derived from her relationship with the duke; for example, she was granted estates around Lake Como. The Italian given name Lucrezia is of Latin origin (from Lucretia) and derives from lucrum, meaning gain, profit, or wealth.
Attached to the narrow black headband is an ornament composed of a centrally placed rectangular gemstone and six oval gemstones arranged around it at regular intervals. The headband to which the jewel is affixed serves to hold the hairnet at the back of her head, forming a single unit with it
The hairnet
Lucrezia Crivelli wears a hairnet that at first appears unobtrusive and very simple. Upon closer inspection, however, it reveals a structure of perfectly circular elements, too rigid to have been sewn or braided. It appears as if the round hairnet were composed of gold-colored rings evenly interlinked. In contrast to the much more elaborate hairnets known from depictions of Beatrice d’Este, Lucrezia’s hairnet seems unusually uniform, almost like a sieve.
A net serves to sift something — whether catching fish or separating lumps from flour. A sieve in Italian is called a crivello, with the plural form crivelli. For this reason, the Crivelli family bore a golden sieve in their coat of arms. Lucrezia’s hairnet can therefore be understood as a subtle reference to her family background. It is noteworthy that the crivello forms a unit with the headband, whose jewel can be associated with her given name (Lucretia, from the Latin lucrum meaning profit, gain, wealth). The names Lucretia and Crivelli would thus be connected by a cord.
The circular hairnet is composed of countless small rings linked together in a net-like structure
The coat of arms displays a golden sieve
The wall
Leonardo’s patrons loved wordplay — it was a fashion of the time. He therefore created visual riddles and incorporated such ideas into his paintings. Some examples:
- The Virgin of the Rocks shows the Virgin Mary as the central figure in a grotto, with the seashore visible behind her on the left. Sea in Italian is mare.
- Cecilia Gallerani is known as the Lady with an Ermine. The ermine belongs to the weasel family. The Ancient Greek word for weasel is galê or galéē.
- The portrait of Lisa del Giocondo, known as the Mona Lisa, shows a cheerfully smiling lady. The cheerful one in Italian is gioconda.
- A portrait attributed to Leonardo shows Ginevra de’ Benci before a juniper bush. Juniper in Italian is ginepro.
Leonardo likely painted three works commissioned by the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza: he portrayed his two mistresses and painted The Last Supper in a Milanese church. Surprisingly, Leonardo never directly portrayed the duke — and yet Ludovico is present in all three of these paintings. That the ermine in Cecilia Gallerani’s arms symbolizes the duke is undisputed in scholarship. The Last Supper, too, is connected with the duke, for directly above the mural Leonardo painted coats of arms of the Sforza.
It is therefore plausible to suspect the presence of the duke also in the portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli. The ermine in Cecilia’s portrait is a dominant focal point — just as the wall is in the portrait of Lucrezia. Wall in Italian is muro. Il Moro had been Ludovico’s nickname since childhood, given to him by his father and later cultivated by himself. The duke had a darker complexion and black hair, which apparently reminded his father of a Moor (Italian moro) — that is, someone from Mauretania or North Africa.
In view of Leonardo’s fondness for semantic allusions, it is therefore reasonable to understand the wall (muro) as a wordplay on il Moro. The decision to place this dominant architectural element was thus hardly accidental. As the Lady with an Ermine and the Mona Lisa show, Leonardo could just as easily have omitted such a motif.
The castle in the center of Milan was the residence of the Dukes of Milan. The complex was rebuilt several times over the centuries. Historically preserved is the characteristic, nearly square ground plan marked by monumental walls. In the southeast of the castle (upper right) lies the historic main gate: the Torre del Filarete, named after its architect Filarete from Florence. The tower was destroyed in 1521 in a gunpowder explosion and later rebuilt
The lilies
The rectangular neckline of Lucrezia’s dress features a green trim embroidered with golden lilies. The so-called Florentine lily is the coat of arms of Florence and thus a symbol of the city where Leonardo grew up and received his training. Since no obvious connection to Lucrezia Crivelli or Ludovico Sforza presents itself, the lily may be interpreted as an expression of Leonardo’s attachment to his native city.
Those who view the portrait as an image of the legendary Madame Ferron, the supposed mistress of the French king Francis I, feel supported in their assumption, since the golden lily was the emblem of the French kings. For this reason, the French national flag bore golden lilies on a white field until the French Revolution of 1789.
Leonardo used lilies deliberately as a symbol. It is recorded that he constructed a mechanical lion for a performance at the French court that was able to take a few steps. When the animal finally opened its mouth, numerous lilies appeared. In this context, the lilies stood for the bond between France and Florence.
The golden embroideries along the green trim can be interpreted as stylized lilies. They are depicted alternately upright and inverted
The lily has been the symbol of the French monarchy since the early Middle Ages
The necklace
In antiquity, arithmetic (numbers, quantities, calculation) and geometry (space, figures, forms) were regarded as the two main pillars of mathematics. Together with music and astronomy, they formed the mathematical-scientific quadrivium (Latin “four paths”), which, together with the language-oriented trivium (Latin “three paths”: grammar, rhetoric, logic), constituted the seven liberal arts. These seven disciplines were considered the essential knowledge of an educated person. In the Renaissance, this educational tradition was rediscovered, and it survives in the United States to this day in the form of the so-called liberal arts curriculum (e.g., at Amherst College, Williams College, Wellesley College, and others).
Leonardo composed his paintings always against the backdrop of arithmetic and geometry. His works can therefore also be understood as expressions of his mathematical interests. This becomes evident in the proportions, construction lines, and special geometric figures that emerge as connecting lines between important elements of the painting. An example of this is the four-times-wrapped necklace around the sitter’s neck. The regular rhythm of its black-and-white pattern recalls a scale, a ruler, or in general a tool suitable for counting, measuring, and summing numbers and distances — and can thus be understood as a reference to arithmetic.
Striking as well are the angles at which the two hanging parts of the necklace descend from the neck — approximately 45° and 72°. The 45° angle (on the right) corresponds to the diagonal of a square, while the 72° angle (on the left) corresponds to the central angle of a regular pentagon. The square and the regular pentagon — the latter constructed on the basis of the golden ratio — were, alongside the circle and the equilateral triangle, characteristic geometric symbols of the Renaissance. As we will see, both shapes — and the angles associated with them — are fundamental to the construction of the painting.
The necklace thus becomes a symbol of mathematics, since it visually unites the two principal orientations of mathematical thought at the time — arithmetic and geometry.
The regularly arranged links of the necklace suggest an instrument for counting or summing, and also a tool for measuring distances
Is the Ferronnière an iconographic invention by Leonardo?
A narrow headband with a small, centrally worn jewel has been called a Ferronnière since the early 19th century, named after this painting. Contrary to widespread belief, the Ferronnière was not a fashion of Leonardo’s time. There are neither descriptions nor depictions of women wearing such a forehead ornament. In fact, only one Italian noblewoman is known to have worn a similar piece of jewelry: Elisabetta Gonzaga.
A fashion of the period consisted of small, usually embroidered caps worn almost upright on the back of the head. To prevent them from falling off, they were held in place by a narrow band — sometimes a leather strap — tied around the head. When the band was very narrow and simple, it was called a Lenza (Italian for line, cord). When it was slightly wider or embroidered or decorated, it was known as a Frennello (Italian for band, strap). The Frennello was more often adorned with jewels, though these were not placed centrally but at regular intervals around the head. The narrower Lenza was less suitable for this.
Elisabetta Gonzaga is an exception. Since 1489 she had been the Duchess of Urbino, an important duchy east of the Republic of Florence that became an artistic center and home to numerous artists (including Piero della Francesca, Raphael, and others). Elisabetta’s brother was married to Isabella d’Este, the sister of Beatrice d’Este. Elisabetta is the only known contemporary of Leonardo to have worn a small ornament on her Lenza. It was shaped like the letter S, the 18th letter of the alphabet (J was not yet part of the alphabet). It is not known what the letter stood for. Baldassare Castiglione reports in his famous work Il libro del cortegiano (The Book of the Courtier) that she wore this ornament regularly. However, the work was written only from 1508 onward (published in 1528), so it is uncertain from what date she actually wore it.
A portrait by Raphael, however, shows Elisabetta Gonzaga with a scorpion instead of an S on the Lenza. Art historians disagree on the meaning. It has been discussed whether it might be a symbol of fertility, as Elisabetta and her husband remained childless, which eventually led to the extinction of the dynasty. The scorpion — scorpio in Italian — would, through its initial letter, also refer to the S that she wore instead of the scorpion.
Since Raphael painted the portrait at a time when the young painter first met Leonardo personally and demonstrably imitated many of Leonardo’s works, it is reasonable to assume that Raphael may have seen the Belle Ferronnière in Leonardo’s workshop — both stayed in Florence frequently between 1504 and 1508 and knew each other personally — or else saw sketches and based on them created a portrait of Elisabetta, which may have prompted her to wear an S on her forehead thereafter.
It remains true that there is still no earlier compelling evidence of a Ferronnière prior to Leonardo’s portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli. Leonardo may therefore have introduced the centrally placed forehead jewel as a pictorial idea. In that case, it would be an example of how an imaginary image can shape real fashion — even centuries later.
Beatrice d’Este was the Duchess of Milan.
The headband — Lenza (Italian for line, cord) or Frennello (Italian for band, strap) — always served the purpose of holding a hairnet at the back of the head. The hair itself was usually tied into a very long braid
Several jewels are attached to the Frennello at regular intervals. Here, too, it holds a hairnet in place. The identity of the lady is unknown, likely a Milanese court lady, since de Predis was court painter to Ludovico in Milan. He was also involved in the work on the altarpiece that featured Leonardo’s Virgin of the Rocks at its center
Isabella of Aragon was the wife of Ludovico’s nephew, the heir to the Milanese throne, and at the same time Ludovico’s niece. The semicircular discoloration on the upper forehead indicates a now-lost wide headband to which a jewel had been attached at the center, recognizable by a nail-sized hole. The cap worn by the Neapolitan king’s daughter is strikingly larger and covers almost all her hair. The band with the jewel likely served to pull the cap forward by its weight
The painting shows the Milanese court lady Cecilia Gallerani, predecessor of Lucrezia Crivelli as mistress of Ludovico Sforza. She wears a simple black headband, just narrow enough to be described as a Lenza
The medal shows that Elisabetta wore an ornamental element at the center of her forehead. Its exact shape, however, cannot be discerned due to the full profile
The scorpion (Italian scorpio, beginning with S) was regarded as a symbol of fertility. There is no evidence that Elisabetta ever wore it in this manner; it is therefore highly likely to be an iconographic invention by Raphael
Composition of the painting
The initially unassuming portrait of La Belle Ferronnière can be regarded as one of the clearest examples of Leonardo’s geometrically constructed composition. The following analysis shows how the square, the golden ratio, and triangular forms not only determine the structure of the figure but also shape the thematic and symbolic order of the painting.
Reference painting for this analysis
In standard literature, the painting is usually shown cropped. The Louvre Museum in Paris, which houses the painting, displays it on its website in full and without a frame, though with slight perspective distortion. For this analysis, the missing areas were reconstructed based on that photograph; this can be recognized by a slight color difference along the edges of the wall.
In the version shown here, the painting has its original width-to-height proportions. However, the original height cannot be determined with absolute certainty because the portrait is slightly arched upward at the upper left edge today. For this analysis, the arched section was removed in order to obtain a rectangular image. The difference is minimal (<1%) and does not significantly alter the geometric relationships with respect to the height of the painting.
I The square
The painting’s structure and proportions clearly refer to the square I.
- the format of the painting is 1 : 2 (corresponding to 1 : 1.41) and is therefore identical to today’s DIN A4 format. The square root of 2 can be represented geometrically as the length of the diagonal of a square with side length 1
- the upper edge of the wall, the highest point of the head, and the left and right borders of the painting form a square
- on closer inspection, it becomes apparent that the central gemstone in the headband is divided at the bottom center by a fine line. This creates two squares lying directly next to each other
Taken together, all three references to the square form a unified system extending from the largest element — the frame of the painting — through the figure presented in a square section, down to the smallest detail: the jewel on the headband, which is so characteristic of the painting.
Leonardo had already demonstrated this principle of layered observation in two other masterpieces that were likewise created in Milan. In the Virgin of the Rocks, Mary wears a brooch only a few centimeters in size that, upon close inspection, reflects the painter’s studio. And in the pupils of the Lady with an Ermine, what she sees is reflected.
On closer inspection, it becomes clear that the rectangular gemstone is marked at the center of its lower half by a short black line. This divides the rectangle into two adjacent squares
Mary wears a glass-clear brooch at her neck that fastens her mantle. The subtle reflection at first appears unremarkable
On closer inspection, it becomes clear that the brooch reflects a window located to the left behind the viewer. This is remarkable, because the depicted scene takes place entirely inside a cave
The sitter looks toward the light in an otherwise completely dark room and sees something located outside the picture space
In the pupils, what the lady sees is reflected. The eyes in the painting are only about one centimeter in size
In the right eye, the same reflection appears as in the left. Only in the Lady with an Ermine does Leonardo render the pupils in such detail — in the Belle Ferronnière only two horizontal strokes appear as reflections, and in the Mona Lisa none at all
II The quadrants
Leonardo provides indications that the square can once again be subdivided into smaller squares II.
- the vertical bisector of the square — that is, of the painting — runs exactly through the left eye of the Belle Ferronnière (vertical line, upper blue dot)
- the headpieces of the bands are grouped into triangular forms (pink ellipses) located to the left and right of the picture’s center. The uppermost headpiece lies directly below the midline of the square (middle horizontal line)
- the red dress shows a different seam pattern on the left half of the painting than on the right: on the left, a horizontal–vertical seam pattern dominates, while on the right the shoulder area is depicted with a round arched pattern.
Where the upper arc of the shoulder seam meets the upper horizontal seam of the neckline, lies the lower corner of the green trim, which is hit precisely by the vertical bisector (lower blue dot). - on the right half of the painting, the dress rises almost to the midpoint of the square at the neck
Through the interaction of these individual components, the impression arises that Leonardo deliberately structured the two lower quadrants into a left and a right section.
The two upper quadrants cannot be meaningfully treated as separate parts — they form a single unit. A rectangle composed of two squares emerges
The left part of the dress shows a characteristic cross pattern and thus appears highly structured. The band of the necklace, with its soft forms, creates a deliberate counterpoint to the rigid geometric lines
It almost seems as though Leonardo condensed the fundamental structure of the painting into the jewel of the headband. The ornament shows at its center a rectangle composed of two adjacent squares. This rectangle would then correspond to the upper section with the bust of the Ferronnière, and the two squares to the two lower halves
On the right side, rounded, organic forms predominate, extending upward across several arcs to the neck
Geometric relationship between the square and the golden ratio
The square is closely connected to the most widespread method for constructing the golden ratio. This method goes back to the ancient mathematician Euclid (3rd century BC), who described it in his major work, the Elements. Until the early 20th century, the book was considered the standard work of geometry. Leonardo’s geometric drawings show that he studied and understood the mathematical derivations and rules explained therein.
The basis for constructing the golden ratio of the segment AB is a rectangle made of two adjacent squares with sides AB and BC.
1) Draw the diagonal AC of the rectangle
2) Draw a circle centered at C with radius CB. Mark the intersection with the diagonal AC (blue point)
3) Draw a circle centered at A with the radius from A to the intersection point from step 2 (blue point)
Where this circle meets the segment AB is the golden ratio of AB (yellow point).
III Golden ratio
Leonardo used the golden ratio in La Belle Ferronnière to emphasize both the headpiece of the necklace and the jewel on the forehead III.
- the golden ratio of the painting’s height meets the headpiece of the band on the necklace (lower orange horizontal line), as well as the headpieces of two bands on her left shoulder (pink ellipses)
- the golden ratio of the painting’s width also meets the necklace’s headpiece (mouseover)
- when the major section of the golden ratio of the painting’s height is divided again according to the golden ratio, this second golden ratio meets the forehead jewel exactly (upper orange horizontal line)
Leonardo played with the golden ratio in his portraits to direct the viewer’s gaze toward the eyes. For him, they were the window of the soul and at the same time an instrument of understanding — to see, for him, meant to understand. Particularly remarkable is the striking pattern with which he incorporated the golden ratio into his portraits in exactly the same manner each time.
The golden ratio of the painting’s width meets the ermine’s left eye exactly (orange vertical line), and just as precisely, the golden ratio of the painting’s height intersects the animal’s right eye (lower horizontal line). When the golden ratio of the painting’s height is divided again, however, the lady’s eyes are narrowly missed (upper horizontal line)
The golden ratio of the painting’s width and height intersects at the headpiece of the band on her necklace and touches the left eye exactly (vertical and lower horizontal lines). When the golden ratio of the painting’s height is divided again according to the golden ratio, it runs precisely through the lady’s forehead jewel (upper horizontal line)
The golden ratio lies at the height of the column bases at the edges of the painting (lower horizontal line). When the golden ratio of the painting’s height is divided again, both eyes of the Mona Lisa are hit exactly (upper horizontal line). Additionally, the vertical bisector runs precisely through her left eye (vertical line)
IV The lower left quadrant
From the young woman’s forehead ornament, the eye is led downward to the necklace at her neck. It consists of black and white links of equal size. The necklace and the band attached to it lead to the lower left quadrant IV.
- the left part of the necklace hangs at an angle of about 72°
- the right part of the necklace hangs at an angle of about 45°
- on the left and right sides of her décolleté, two cross-shaped seams can be seen (orange crosses)
- the headpiece of the band at the neckline sits slightly above these crosses on the green trim of the dress. The trim is inclined at an 18° angle (green horizontal line). An 18° angle results when a 72° angle is subtracted from a right angle (90°). The 72° angle is the central angle of a regular pentagon, which can only be constructed using the golden ratio. Here, too, the deliberate connection between the square (central angle 90°) and the pentagon (central angle 72°) becomes clear.
Crucifixion symbolism
To the left and right of the necklace band are pairs of intersecting lines which contemporaries could have understood as symbols of the Christian faith, as their shapes resemble crosses. The impression is reinforced by the loosely hanging band of the necklace, which displays human proportions:
- a “head” above the knot where the band is attached
- above that, two “arms,” the two links of the necklace
- below the headpiece, the band becomes slightly narrower before widening again at the “hips”
- below the hips, two bright lines at the left and right edges of the band mark the “legs” — in reality, they are simply the two edges of the band
Taken together, the combination of the two cross-lines and the anthropomorphic hanging band of the necklace evokes a stylized crucifixion scene. According to this interpretation, a crucifix hangs from the young woman’s neck. The two crosses on the left and right would then symbolize the two thieves mentioned in the Bible who were crucified together with Jesus (Luke 23:39). In iconography, the repentant sinner, who attains salvation, is depicted on his right, and on his left the unrepentant criminal.
If one follows this view of a crucifixion, the two headpieces of the other two shoulder bands above on the left also begin to appear anthropomorphic as they “look toward” the necklace (brown transparent ellipses). They too seem to have been nailed to crosses around the corner. The resulting five “crucified figures,” however, would no longer correspond to Christian iconography, which always shows only Christ alone or Christ together with the two thieves.
The most famous historical mass crucifixion is associated with the Spartacus revolt. Around 73 BC, the former slave Spartacus gathered an army of escaped slaves in ancient Italy and called them to fight Rome. After initial victories, he lost the decisive battle and was killed. As a sign of victory and a warning against imitation, the roughly 6,000 surviving slaves were crucified along the Via Appia in 71 BC on the road back to Rome. However, there are no reports of crucified women. Under Roman law, only combatants could be executed. Women served merely as companions in the slave army. The female appearance of the hanging figure at the necklace (narrow waist, wide hips) therefore speaks against an allusion to the crucified of the Via Appia.
Against the background of events at the Milanese court, however, a plausible biographical interpretation emerges. It is often overlooked that Lucrezia was already pregnant by Ludovico when his wife, Beatrice d’Este, died in childbirth in 1497 — along with the couple’s third child. If the central band of the necklace is understood as a female figure, with an emphasized pelvis yet hanging lifelessly from the cross, it becomes natural to interpret this as a reference to the particular circumstances surrounding the duke’s affair — and at the same time to the dangers that childbirth posed at a time when medicine was still in its infancy.
The band on the necklace appears strangely anthropomorphic. Together with the two crosses on the left and right, it creates the impression of a crucifixion scene. Against an interpretation of a crucifixion of Jesus, however, speaks the narrow “waist” and wide “hips” of the loosely hanging band
A typical depiction of the crucifixion of Jesus with the two thieves. To Jesus’s right, the repentant sinner in the light; to his left, the unrepentant criminal in partial shadow
The depiction gives an impression of the fate of the roughly 6,000 survivors of the final battle of the Spartacus revolt. They were nailed to crosses along the Via Appia, at intervals of about 30 meters
Chronological connection between the Last Supper, the Crucifixion, and La Belle Ferronnière
Lucrezia Crivelli became the mistress of the Duke of Milan around 1495. At that time, Leonardo had already been working on the Last Supper for a year and completed it about three years later, around 1498. The Last Supper is located in a former refectory of a monastery directly adjoining the important Milanese church of Santa Maria delle Grazie. The church was being remodeled at the same time by Bramante, later the architect of St. Peter’s Basilica. It was intended to become the burial place of the ruling Milanese Sforza family. Thus, Beatrice d’Este, after her early death, was buried in Santa Maria delle Grazie in a magnificent ceremony.
Opposite Leonardo’s Last Supper, a work depicting the Crucifixion of Jesus had already been completed in 1495. The two paintings are therefore connected thematically: the Jesus depicted by Leonardo looks—almost in a vision—across the room toward his future fate. The Crucifixion scene thus illustrates the meaning of Jesus’s words, to which the disciples react during the Last Supper.
The exact date of the portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli is uncertain. However, it can be assumed that—just like the portrait of the Lady with an Ermine—it was intended as a gift from the Duke to his mistress, likely on the occasion of the birth of a child. Lucrezia Crivelli bore Ludovico a son in 1497. Accordingly, her portrait would have been created at the same time as the Last Supper—and under the emotional impact of the tragic death of Beatrice d’Este, who died in childbirth while Lucrezia was pregnant by Ludovico.
The monumental wall painting—Leonardo’s major work—was created over several years, precisely during the period when Lucrezia Crivelli was the mistress of Ludovico Sforza
The painting, created almost at the same time, is located on the opposite wall of the same room
V The lower right quadrant
On the bands at the left shoulder, distinct knots can be identified V, with which they were fastened to the dress.
- when the knots are connected, an isosceles triangle emerges, meaning the left and right sides are exactly the same length (white lines)
- the two base angles each measure 30°, and the upper angle is 120°
- the length of the two equal sides corresponds exactly to one eighth of the painting’s width
- the base of the triangle divides the lower right quadrant vertically according to the golden ratio (orange line, not to be confused with the golden ratio of the full painting height, which lies just above it; mouseover)
This creates a connection to the Lady with an Ermine, where the same triangle was used just as prominently — to position the ermine’s eyes and its right ear.
The three visible bands on her left shoulder are attached in semicircular arcs to a white band with knots. These knots form an upward-pointing isosceles triangle with interior angles of 30°, 30°, and 120°
The ermine’s two eyes and its right ear form a downward-pointing isosceles triangle with interior angles of 30°, 30°, and 120°. They also lie on the vertical bisector (red line), the golden ratio of the painting’s height (orange horizontal line), and the golden ratio of its width (orange vertical line)
Use of the 45°, 60°, and 75° triangle
Leonardo frequently used a special symbolic triangle with interior angles of exactly 45°, 60°, and 75° (the order may vary) to connect essential elements within a painting. This triangle can also be identified in the Belle Ferronnière:
- from the upper knot of the shoulder triangle, a 60° angle can be drawn to the start of the lady’s center parting (right yellow line)
- from there, a 45° angle leads to the midpoint of the lower left quadrant (left yellow line)
- when all three points are connected, a triangle with interior angles of 45°, 75°, and 60° emerges (yellow transparent triangle)
The left and right sides of this triangle each touch one of the eyes — precisely at the left edge of each pupil. In addition, the forehead jewel now lies at the topmost point of this triangle. The rectangular gemstone in the forehead ornament, divided into two squares, can thus be interpreted as a symbol of the two lower quadrants (red and green squares within the rectangular stone).
The three right-side eyes and the left eye of the Christ child (bottom right) lie on a circle. The three eyes on the left side are connected by a triangle with interior angles of 45°, 60°, and 75°. The tip of the angel’s index finger touches the right side of this triangle exactly
Here, the triangle connects the ermine’s two ears and its left eye (green transparent area). As shown above, directly beneath it lies another triangle with interior angles of 30°, 120°, and 30°, which connects the ermine’s two eyes and its right ear
Here, the same triangle appears through the connection of the tip of the wreath with the centers of the spirals at the ends of the scroll
Family scenes
With the adjacent crucifixion-like scene in the lower left quadrant in mind, the bands hanging from the shoulder also appear anthropomorphic here. A larger figure (the middle band) stretches its arms toward two smaller figures (the left and right bands) and seems to grab them by the collar and pull them close — much as mothers sometimes do with their children. The left band “looks” wistfully to the left, and the right band is barely visible in the darkness.
Because of the folded fabric of the dress, the left band also evokes associations with an older, sleeping male figure lying under a heavy blanket in a bed. His right arm hangs over the edge of the bed. The middle band then becomes a figure standing beside the bed, placing its right hand on the forehead of the reclining figure while being pulled by the right band with its other hand.
It is not difficult to see in this scene a projection of relationships within the Milanese ducal family. Ludovico Sforza’s romantic life is marked by the fact that he always took very young women, regardless of his own age. Cecilia Gallerani — known as the Lady with an Ermine — was only 16 years old, possibly even just 14, when she became the duke’s mistress. He himself was already 37 at the time. At 39 he then married Beatrice d’Este, who at 16 was also very young. After her early death at age 22, he took Lucrezia Crivelli as his mistress at 43; she was about 24 at the time.
That Leonardo may have reflected these age differences in his paintings might already be hinted at in the Lady with an Ermine. The ermine is depicted almost twice as large as it is in reality, often interpreted as emphasizing its symbolic association with the duke. Conversely, one could also argue that the ermine is not too large, but Cecilia is rendered too small. This could be understood as a subtle reference to Ludovico’s preference for very young women.
In a similar sense, the hidden bed scene on the shoulder of the Belle Ferronnière can be interpreted. It may represent a projection into the future, hinting at the consequences that a significant age difference brings in later life. The aging Ludovico lies (dying?) in his bed while Lucrezia looks at him from the foot of the bed. If he is so many years older than she is, how many years does she still have left when he dies? Will she still feel attractive enough for a new love? If they were to have young children late in life, would those children be old enough to remember their father?
If the concealed motif is read as such a family scene, it is questions like these that come to mind for the viewer.
It becomes clear that the three bands on the right side in particular appear ghostly and anthropomorphic. The left band seems to represent a smaller person who is being pulled to the right by the collar, the middle band looks downward to the left, and the right band likewise appears to be pulled to the left by the collar
The middle band — “the mother” — seems to grab the two bands on the left and right, “the children,” by the collar and pull them toward itself. The heads of the bands are shaped in such a way that they resemble human heads and appear to be wearing hoods
When only the two left bands are viewed in a tighter crop, the impression arises of an older man sleeping in his bed: a white pillow, a heavy red blanket. He wears a hood on his head, which is tilted to the left, and his right arm hangs limply over the edge of the bed. In the right foreground, a person passing by at the foot of the bed turns toward him
VI The two upper quadrants
In contrast to the lower half of the large square, no intentional division into a left and a right half can be identified for the two upper quadrants A. Instead, the two upper quadrants can be understood as a rectangle made of two squares. It does not appear accidental that the optical center of this area is a rectangular gemstone on the forehead jewel, which is horizontally divided into two squares at the lower center by a short black line.
- On closer inspection, the central gemstone of the forehead jewel has the shape of a rectangle made of two squares and is marked at the lower center with a short black line. It is surrounded by six equally sized circular gemstones arranged on a circumcircle in the shape of a regular hexagon VI. The circumcircle appears elliptical because it has been tilted exactly 30° into space – measurable by the ratio of width to height, which corresponds to the sine of 60°
- The headband is tilted 3.5° to the left (white slanted line), just like the lady’s head, identifiable by the connecting line through the centers of her pupils (blue line). The same angle is also used for the position of the pupils of the Lady with an Ermine, and Leonardo’s final painting also shows this angle in the form of the slightly tilted cross
Cecilia Gallerani, mistress of the Duke of Milan. The axis between the pupils (blue line) is tilted exactly 3.5° upward to the right
Lucrezia Crivelli, Cecilia’s successor as the mistress of the Duke of Milan and likewise the mother of his son. The axis between the pupils (blue line) is tilted exactly 3.5° upward to the right and runs parallel to the headband, which shows the same tilt
Leonardo’s final painting depicts John, identifiable by his primary attributes: the fur cloak and the staff of John (an elongated cross, blue vertical line). The cross above the hand is tilted exactly 3.5° to the right, and below it by about half of that, roughly 1.7°
- At the point where the eye axis (blue line) meets the perpendicular bisector, a 60° angle can be drawn to its midpoint vertex. From there, a tangent on the forehead jewel meets the eye axis again at a 45° angle. This once more produces the already familiar triangle with angles of 45°, 60°, and 75° (V). Both triangles share a common vertex at the midpoint vertex
- From the two centers of the squares of the rectangular gemstone at the forehead jewel, lines can be drawn to the pupils (inner white lines). The left angle measures 72°, the right 45° (central angle of a regular pentagon and diagonal angle of a square). These two angles correspond to the angles of the two links of the necklace located directly below, which are likewise aligned along angles of 72° and 45°
- The wall in the foreground of the painting consists of three equally sized parts. Visible is a keystone placed on top of a second stone of equal height. The lower one is traversed by a strong grain pattern. Beneath it, a slightly recessed wall can be seen, distinguished clearly from the two stones above by its stronger shading.
If only the horizontal lines thus created are considered, a universal concluding image emerges. The word geometry derives from the ancient Greek words for earth and measuring (geo and metron). With the help of geometry, ancient natural philosophers were already able to determine the circumference of the Earth, and even calculate, for example, the size and distance of the Moon. Leonardo himself already held a heliocentric view of the world, meaning he did not assume that the celestial bodies revolved around the Earth, but saw the Sun as the center of planetary motion. He noted this in capital letters: “The sun does not move” (Codex Windsor, folio 127).
Until the discovery of Uranus in 1781, only the six inner planets of our solar system had been known since antiquity, because only they were visible to the naked eye or through the earliest telescopes (from 1609 onward). Against this background, the six horizontal lines constructed by Leonardo in this scene appear as a stylized solar system, with the forehead jewel of the Belle Ferronnière placed at its center (VI + mouseover). The forehead jewel, in turn, also consists of six gemstones arranged evenly in a circle, once again taking up the theme of layered observation—just as initially noted in the format of the painting (2), the square of the portrayed figure, and the division of the rectangular gemstone at the forehead jewel into two squares.
As already mentioned, the black-and-white segmented chain can be understood as an allusion to arithmetic and geometry. If essential construction lines of the painting now also symbolize astronomy, only a reference to music is still missing in order to complete the quadrivium of the seven ancient arts.
Leonardo held a heliocentric worldview. Here he shows that at new moon, the side of the Moon facing the Earth reflects the sunlight that strikes the Earth. For this reason, the otherwise dark new moon (center) appears in a faint light when seen from the Earth (left). The effect is known today as the Da Vinci glow
A system of five musical staff lines is used here. Leonardo had an ambivalent relationship with music. On the one hand, he played several instruments and sang, while on the other hand he preferred painting because it makes all information visible at once and does not—like music—vanish again in the very moment it is heard
Conclusion on the composition of the painting
Leonardo’s portrait compositions are based on a strict geometric structure in which the square, the golden ratio, and symbolic triangles form an overarching order. In La Belle Ferronnière, this principle appears with particular clarity: the overall form of the painting, the structure of the figure, and the smallest decorative details are coordinated with one another and follow the same proportional rules. Classical geometric figures such as the equilateral triangle and the square revolve around the golden ratio, which, as the most important proportion, emphasizes the characteristic forehead jewel. These forms appear in multiple variations – directly visible or implied as angles of 45°, 60°, or 72°, as proportions such as 2 or sin 60°, or in the structural division of the forehead jewel itself, which directly refers to the construction of the golden ratio.
Leonardo combines this geometric precision with a subtle psychological effect, which becomes visible in the thematically organized quadrants of the painting. Checkered patterns are interrupted and overlaid with ornament so that they form crosses. Bands tied in geometric harmony to triangles transform into human figures. Lines and intersections assemble into a pattern reminiscent of an astronomical sketch – with exactly the number of axes and connections corresponding to the number of planets known at the time, all of which orbit the forehead jewel.
It can also be shown that Leonardo links his paintings through recurring geometric motifs – for example, through the 3.5° angle he uses for positioning the pupils in the portraits of the Duke of Milan’s mistresses, or through characteristic triangles with interior angles of 30°, 30°, and 120°, or 45°, 60°, and 75°, with which he structurally connects central points of the composition.
All of this reflects Leonardo’s pursuit of unity between measure, number, and expression. Viewed as a whole, the composition reveals itself as a multilayered system – mathematically constructed, symbolically charged, and at the same time filled with human presence. In this way, it forms the transition from the medieval symbolic order to the early modern idea of a rational, harmonious pictorial space – a fundamental principle that characterizes the depth of Leonardo’s work.
Provenance
No commission records, notes, or studies by Leonardo are known for the portrait La Belle Ferronnière. The painting was created between 1495 and 1519, probably around 1497 at the Milanese court, and with high probability depicts Lucrezia Crivelli – after Cecilia Gallerani, the Lady with an Ermine, the second mistress of the Duke of Milan, who likewise bore him a son in 1497. The contemporary poet Tebaldeo dedicated a poem to each of the two portraits, in which he names the two women and praises Leonardo as their painter. It has sometimes been claimed that the walnut wood used for the Belle Ferronnière is identical to that of the Lady with an Ermine, which would suggest its creation at the Milanese court. However, this assumption was disproven through material analyses conducted by the Louvre here.
Alternatively, it has been suggested that the painting was created only during Leonardo’s later years at the French court in Amboise and portrays an otherwise unknown mistress of King Francis I. In that case, it would be dated between 1516 and 1519. Yet no historical source mentions such a mistress or a corresponding portrait by Leonardo.
The journey to France
What happened to the painting after its creation is unclear. What is certain is only that it eventually reached France. An important clue is provided by the travel report of Antonio de Beatis, who in 1517, as secretary to Cardinal Luigi d’Aragona, visited Leonardo’s workshop at the Château du Clos Lucé near Amboise. There he saw several paintings by the master and explicitly mentioned “a portrait of a lady from Milan”:
There was also a painting on which a certain lady from Milan was painted from life in oil, which is very beautiful, but in my opinion not as beautiful as Signora Isabella Gualanda.
The remark is addressed to a contemporary audience in Naples: Isabella Gualanda was famous there for her beauty, and the cardinal himself came from that city. Although it cannot be stated with certainty that the “lady from Milan” refers to La Belle Ferronnière, this is likely given the small number of authentic Leonardo paintings. In the same report, de Beatis also mentions the lady from Florence (presumably the Mona Lisa), the Anna Selbdritt, and John the Baptist – precisely the four unquestionably genuine works by Leonardo that are still housed in the Louvre today.
How the portrait reached France and why it was not in the possession of Lucrezia Crivelli, while Cecilia Gallerani kept her portrait as the Lady with an Ermine until her death, remains unresolved. One can only speculate. It may have come into French hands as spoils of war in 1499, when King Louis XII conquered Milan. More likely, however, Francis I of France acquired the painting directly from Leonardo or obtained it after Leonardo’s death in 1519, since Leonardo spent his final years in France.
In the royal collection
The portrait is mentioned for the first time in 1642 in the collection at Fontainebleau.
- In 1642, Father Dan published his work Trésor des merveilles de la maison royale de Fontainebleau (“Treasury of the Wonders of the Royal House of Fontainebleau”). It lists four paintings by Leonardo, one described as a “portrait of a Duchess of Mantua” (possibly referring to Isabella d’Este). Of the known Leonardo portraits, only the Mona Lisa and this portrait were in the collection, so it must refer to the Belle Ferronnière. Why Father Dan called her the Duchess of Mantua is unclear: neither Beatrice d’Este nor her sister Isabella were Duchesses of Mantua. Beatrice died as Duchess of Milan, and Isabella d’Este was Marchioness of Mantua. Only her son was elevated to duke. Father Dan must therefore have retrospectively and incorrectly identified her as Isabella d’Este, or Duchess of Mantua, and could not have obtained this information from any source dating from Leonardo’s or Isabella’s lifetime
- In 1651, Raphaël Trichet du Fresne adopted the designation “Duchess of Mantua” in his Leonardo biography.
Art historians who identify the Belle Ferronnière as Isabella d’Este, the “Duchess of Mantua,” rely on these two sources.
In 1682, Louis XIV had the royal collection transferred to the Palace of Versailles.
- In 1683, the painter Charles Le Brun compiled an inventory of the royal collection and described the painting simply as Portrait d’une femme (“portrait of a woman”) – no longer as the portrait of a “Duchess of Mantua”
- This designation was retained in 1709 by Nicolas Bailly and in 1752 by François Bernard Lépicié, who again compiled catalogues of the collection
- In 1784, the painting was then identified by the author Durameau in yet another catalogue as a portrait of the English queen Anne Boleyn (1507–1536), though without giving any reasons for this attribution. This shows the persistence with which attempts were made to assign an identity to the Belle Ferronnière
Public exhibition in the Paris Louvre
As a consequence of the French Revolution of 1789, the royal collection passed into the ownership of the French state in 1793, which began exhibiting it publicly in the newly opened Louvre Museum.
- In 1796, the Italian scholar Giovanni Battista Venturi, who was studying Leonardo’s manuscripts in Paris, first proposed Lucrezia Crivelli as the sitter. In Leonardo’s notebooks, he had discovered the poem by Tebaldeo praising a Lucrezia who had been painted by Leonardo for her lover “Il Moro.” This interpretation was widely accepted and remains the most likely today
- Between 1802 and 1806, the painters Ingres and Lefèvre produced an engraving that quickly spread and mistakenly titled the painting La Belle Ferronnière. This led to the ongoing confusion in naming. For this reason, the Louvre labels the painting as “portrait of a woman, mistakenly called La Belle Ferronnière”
The painting is now located in Room 710 of the Grande Galerie in the Louvre.
Art historical significance
Although La Belle Ferronnière is executed with flawless technical mastery, it appears at first glance far less innovative than Leonardo’s earlier Lady with an Ermine. The painting is unusually strictly composed and restrained in its modeling. This seemingly unadventurous design creates the impression that Leonardo merely varied an already established portrait formula rather than developing it further. In this sense, the painting almost appears as a secondary work, shaped more by technical virtuosity than by inner engagement.
For this reason, La Belle Ferronnière rarely stands at the center of discussions about Leonardo’s oeuvre. Among the unquestionably authentic paintings by Leonardo, this unobtrusive portrait is one of the least noted—precisely because, in comparison with the Lady with an Ermine, it can easily seem like “more of the same.”
But this impression is misleading. With the Belle Ferronnière, Leonardo created a masterpiece that exemplifies his understanding of how a portrait should be conceived. As shown above, in selecting each detail he allowed only those that relate directly to the sitter’s biography. In a sense, he “adorned” a bare bust of the portrayed woman with symbols drawn from her life, which in their totality form the complete portrait of Lucrezia Crivelli. In the Lady with an Ermine, these personal references were not as clearly present. The focus of that painting lay less on her person and more on the depiction of her relationship to the Duke. La Belle Ferronnière, by contrast, places the sitter at the center as a self-assured individual. Although she too is, fundamentally, the Duke’s mistress, the symbols in the portrait are now her own rather than the Duke’s. Yet she is not entirely free from external symbolism, for her figure remains visually placed behind the wall that symbolizes the Duke. Only the Mona Lisa will leave this wall behind.
How faithfully the highest art corresponds to nature here! Da Vinci could, as so often, have portrayed the soul. But he did not, so that the painting might be a true likeness. For il Moro* alone possessed her soul in his love.
She who is meant is named Lucrezia, and to her the gods have given everything with generous hands. How rare her form! Leonardo painted her, il Moro loved her: the one the foremost among painters, the other the foremost among princes.
Surely the painter has offended nature and the noble goddesses with his painting. In the end, it vexes them that the human hand is capable of so much. Even more, that immortality was granted to a being meant to pass quickly. He did it out of love for il Moro, for which il Moro protects him. Both gods and humans fear angering il Moro.* il Moro (Italian for “the Moor”) was the epithet of Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan
Downloads
Literature
Website of the exhibiting museum: Louvre Museum, Paris
Frank Zöllner, Leonardo, Taschen (2019)
Martin Kemp, Leonardo, C.H. Beck (2008)
Charles Niccholl, Leonardo da Vinci: Die Biographie, Fischer (2019)
Johannes Itten, Bildanalysen, Ravensburger (1988)
Gustav Schwab, Sagen des klassischen Altertums - Vollständige Ausgabe, Anaconda Verlag (2011)
Die Bibel, Einheitsübersetzung, Altes und Neues Testament, Pattloch Verlag (1992)
Particularly recommended
Marianne Schneider, Das große Leonardo Buch – Sein Leben und Werk in Zeugnissen, Selbstzeugnissen und Dokumenten, Schirmer/ Mosel (2019)
Leonardo da Vinci, Schriften zur Malerei und sämtliche Gemälde, Schirmer/ Mosel (2011)